Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology; Part 2, Agriculture

378 Pages·1984·49.16 MB·English

by  Joseph Needham

THE PICTURE OF THE TAOIST GENII PRINTED ON THE COVER
of this book is part of a painted temple scroll, recent but traditional, given to
Mr Brian Harland in Szechuan province ([946). Concerning these four divinities,
of respectable rank in the Taoist bureaucracy, the following particulars have been
handed down. The title of the first of the four signifies' Heavenly Prince', that
of the other three' Mysterious Commander '.
At the top, on the left, is Liu Thien Chiin, Comptroller-General of Crops and
Weather. Before his deification (so it was said) he was a rain-making magician
and weather forecaster named Liu Chiin, born in the Chin dynasty about + 340.
Among his attributes may be seen the sun and moon, and a measuring-rod or
carpenter's square. The two great luminaries imply the making of the calendar, so
important for a primarily agricultural society, the efforts, ever renewed, to reconcile
celestial periodicities. The carpenter's square is no ordinary tool, but the gnomon
for measuring the lengths of the sun's solstitial shadows. The Comptroller-General
also carries a bell because in ancient and medieval times there was thought to be
a close connection between calendrical calculations and the arithmetical acoustics
of bells and pitch-pipes.
At the top, on the right, is Wen Yuan Shuai, Intendant of the Spiritual Officials
of the Sacred Mountain, Thai Shan. He was taken to be an incarnation of one of
the Hour-Presidents (Chia Shen) , i.e. tutelary deities of the twelve cyclical characters
(see Vol. 4, pt. 2, p. 440). During his earthly pilgrimage his name was Huan Tzu-Yu
and he was a scholar and astronomer in the Later Han (b. + (42). He is seen
holding an armillary ring.
Below, on the left, is Kou Yuan Shuai, Assistant Secretary of State in the Ministry
of Thunder. He is therefore a late emanation of a very ancient god, Lei Kung.
Before he became deified he was Hsin Hsing, a poor woodcutter, but no doubt an
incarnation of the spirit of the constellation Kou-Chhen (the Angular Arranger),
part of the group of stars which we know as Urs~ Minor. He is equipped with
hammer and chisel.
Below, on the right, is Pi Yuan Shuai, Commander of the Lightning, with his
flashing sword, a deity with distinct alchemical and cosmological interests. According
to tradition, in his early life he was a countryman whose name was Thien Hua.
Together with the colleague on his right, he controlled the Spirits of the Five
Directions.
Such is the legendary folklore of common men canonised by popular acclamation.
An interesting scroll, of no great artistic merit, destined to decorate a temple wall,
to be looked upon by humble people, it symbolises something which this book has
to say. Chinese art and literature have been so profuse, Chinese mythological
imagery so fertile, that the West has often missed other aspects, perhaps more
important, of Chinese civilisation. Here the graduated scale of Liu Chiin, at first
sight unexpected in this setting, reminds us of the ever-present theme of quanti
tative measurement in Chinese culture; there were rain-gauges already in the Sung
(+ 12th century) and sliding calipers in the Han (+ [st). The armillary ring of
Huan Tzu-Yii bears witness that Naburiannu and Hipparchus, al-Naqqash and
Tycho, had worthy counterparts in China. The tools of Hsin Hsing symbolise that
great empirical tradition which informed the work of Chinese artisans and tech
nicians all through the ages.

SCIENCE AND CIVILISATION
IN CHINA
The three first men in the world were a gardener, a ploughman, and a grazier;
and if any man object that the second of these was a murtherer, I desire he
would consider that, as soon as he was so, he quitted our profession and turned
builder. It is for this reason, I suppose, that Ecclesiasticus forbids us to hate
husbandry; 'because,' says he, 'the Most High has exalted it'. We were all born
to this art, and taught by Nature to nourish our bodies by the same earth out of
which they were made, and to which they must return, and pay at last for their
sustenance. Behold the original and primitive nobility of all these great persons,
who are too proud now, not,pnly to till the ground, but almost to tread upon it!
We may talk what we please of lilies and lions rampant, and spread eagles in
fields d'or and d'argent, but if heraldry were to be guided by reason, a plough in a
field arable would be the most noble and ancient arms.
Abraham Cowley (1618-67),
The Antiquiry of Agriculture
Therefore the ancient kings made people turn back to agriculture and war. For
this reason it is said: 'Where a hundred men farm and one is idle, the state will
attain supremacy; where ten men farm and one is idle, the state will be strong;
where halffarms and half is idle, the state will be in peril.' That is why those, who
govern the country well, wish the people to take to agriculture ...
A sage knows what is essential in administering a country, and so he induces
the people to devote their attention to agriculture. If their attention is devoted to
agriculture, then they will be simple, and being simple, they may be made
correct. Being perplexed it will be easy to direct them, being trustworthy they
may be used for defence and warfare. Being single-minded, their careers may be
made dependent on rewards and penalties; being single-minded, they may be
used abroad.
Indeed, the people will love their rulers and obey his commandments even
to death, if they are engaged in farming, morning and evening; but they will
be of no use, if they see that glib-tongued, itinerant scholars succeed in being
honoured in serving the prince, that merchants succeed in enriching their
families and that artisans have plenty to live upon. If the people see both the
comfort and the advantage of these three walks oflife, then they will indubitably
shun agriculture; shunning agriculture, they will care little for their homes;
caring little for their homes, they will certainl,! not fight and defend these for the
ruler's sake.
Shang Chun Shu, tr. Duyvendak (3), p. 191
The plough was invented by the ancient sages, and ever since the first use of
cereal grains the people's livelihood has depended upon it. No king or ruler of a
state could dispense with it. To eat one's fill and live in peace without having to
struggle for survival, is commended as proper conduct, and is what distinguishes
us from what Yang Tzu calls 'living like brutes'.
Lei Ssu Ching, tr. auct.
JOSEPH NEEDH 1\;1
SCIENCE AND
IN
C~I\lII~IS~~TION
CHINA
VOLU~IE 6
-$
B I () I.() C}'l A.NI) B I () LC) C; I (:[\L
'TECHNC)LC)G '{
~~ PART 11: AGRICULTURE
BY
FR;\NCESCA BRA. Y
~
RESEARCH FELLOW
ASIAN HISTORY OF SelF-NeE LIBRARY
~
CA~IBRIDGE UNIV E RSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE
LONDON NEW YORK NEW ROCHELLE
MELBOURNE SYDNEY
Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 IRP
32 East 57th Street, New York, NY 10022, USA
296 Beaconsfield Parade, Middle Park, Melbourne 3206, Australia
© Cambridge University Press 1984
First published 1984
Printed in Great Britain at the University Press, Cambridge
Library of Congress catalogue card number: 54-4723
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
This book is dedicated to the memories of
Needham, Joseph
Science and civilisation in China. SHIH SHENG-HAN
Vol. 6
of the Northwestern Agricultural College, Wukung,
Pt. 2: Agriculture
I. Science-China-History 2. Technology-China-History WANG YU-HU
I. Title 11. Bray, Francesca
5ag'·51 Q127·C5 of the Peking Agricultural College,
ISBN 0 521 25076 5 and
AMANO MOTONOSUKE
of Os aka City University,
without whose pioneering works on the history of
agriculture in China this volume would not have been
possible.
AO
CONTENTS
page XiI
List Tables, XXll
list of Abbreviations xxm
Author's ,OVate XXIV
4-1 AGRI LTURE
Introduction, p. I
( I) General characteristics of Chinese p.
Agricultural regions, p. 9
(i) The maize-millet-soybean area, p. 10
The spring wheat area, p. 1'2
(iii) The winter wheat-millet area, p. 1:2
(iv) The winter wheat-sorghum area, p. 14
(v) The Yangtze rice-wheat area, p. 15
The rice-tea area, p. 17
(vii) The Szechwan rice area, p. 18
(viii) The double-cropping rice area, p. 19
(ix) The Southwestern rice area, p. 20
Origins of Chinese agriculture, p. 27
(i) Stimuli to the adoption of agriculture, p. 29
(ii) General theories of agricultural origins, p. 34
(iii) The origins of agriculture in China, p. 39
Sources, p. 47
(I The ]iieh ling or agricultural calendars, p. 52
Agricultural treatises, p. 55
(i) The Chhi A1in rao Shu, or Essential Techniques for the
Peasantry, p. 55
(ii) Wang Chen's Nung Shu, or Agricultural Treatise, p. 59
(iii) The Nung Cheng Chhiian Shu, or Complete Treatise on
Agricultural Administration, p. 64
(3) State-commissioned compilations, p. 70
(i) The Nung Sang Chi rao, or Fundamentals of Agricul
ture and Sericulture, p. 7 r
(ii) The Shou Shih Thung Khao, or Compendium of \Vorks
and Days, p. 7'2
( 4) Monographs, p. 74
(5) Supplementary sources, p. 76
IX
x CONTENTS CONTENTS Xl
(6) The content of the Chinese sources, and the implications for (i) Foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and broomcorn millet
historical interpretation, p. 80 (Panicum miliaceum), p. 434
(7) A comparison with the European tradition, p. 85 (ii) Kaoliang or sorghum, p. 449
(c) Field systems, p. 93 (iii) Maize, p. 452
( I) Land clearance and reclamation, p. 93 (3) Wheat and barley, p. 459
(2) Shifting cultivation, p. 98 (4) Rice, p. 477
(3) Permanent fields, p. 10I (i) The origins of domesticated rice in Asia, p. 48 I
(i) Northern China, p. 101 (ii) Chinese rice varieties and nomenclature, p. 489
(ii) Southern China, p. 106 (iii) Cultivation methods, p. 495
(iii) Special field types, p. 113 (5) Legumes, p. 510
(6) Oil crops, p. 518
(d) Agricultural implements and techniques, p. 130
(7) Tuber crops, p. 526
(I) Tillage implements, p. 130
(8) Fibre crops, p. 532
(i) The plough, p. 138
(9) Vegetables and fruits, p. 539
(ii) Hand tillage: hoes, mattocks, spades, p. 196
(f) Conclusions: Agricultural changes and society-stagnation or revolu
(iii) Smoothing and levelling: beetles, rakes, harrows and
rollers, p. 220 tion?, p. 553
(2) Sowing, p. 241 (I) Did China contribute to Europe's Agricultural Revolution?,
(i) Planting calendars and the selection of sowing dates, p·558
p. 241 (i) Pre-modern agricultural technology in Europe, p. 562
(ii) Preparation of the seed-grain, p. 245 (ii) European access to Asian agricultural technology,
(iii) Sowing methods, p. 25 I p. 566
(iv) Sowing rates, p. 286 (iii) The transformation in European agriculture, p. 571
(v) Conclusions, p. 288 (iv) Asian contributions to Europe's Agricultural Revolu
(3) Fertilisation, p. 289 tion,p·581
(4) Weeding and cultivation, p. 298 (2) Agricultural revolution in China?, p. 587
(i) Dryland agriculture, p. 300 (i) Agricultural development and agrarian change III
(ii) Horse-hoeing husbandry, p. 307 North China in the Han, p. 587
(iii) Irrigated agriculture, p. 3 I I (ii) The 'Green Revolution' in South China, p. 597
(5) Harvesting, threshing and winnowing, p. 3 I 9 (3) Development or change?, p. 615
(i) Harvesting, p. 319 BIBLIOGRAPHIES
(ii) Threshing, p. 345
Abbreviations, p. 6 I 8
(iii) Winnowing, p. 363
A. Chinese and Japanese books before + 1800, p. 621
(6) Grain storage, p. 378
(i) The importance of storage methods; their place in the B. Chinese and Japanese books andjournal articles since + 18oo,p. 634
literature, p. 378 C. Books and journal articles in Western languages, p. 649
(ii) Storage technology, p. 381
GENERAL INDEX
(iii) Storage facilities, p. 386
(iv) Public grain storage, p. 415 Table of Chinese Dynasties
(e) Crop systems, p. 423 Romanisation Conversion Tables
( I) Crop rotations, p. 429
(2) Millets, sorghum and maize, p. 434
LIST Of' ILl. USTRA nONS XIH
Plough with a straight wooden mould-boa.rd, as seen in
Fall qf lcarus; lVfuseum of Fine Arts, Brussels page 78
LIS ()F ILL S RA I
The Ming land tax system; Ray Huang p.83. page
Layout of fields in modern North China, sho'rving traces of the
Ceremonial the emperor and his ancient strips; Leeming (I ,pt 5 pa,ge
~VCN'S I I ll;age Reconstructions of the 'skein' ploughing technique page r04
,\flap of the northern page
Han model of a rice field with water-·f}ow control; Canton
Map the
lVluseum page 108
after Buck ~ p. r68. page ;;:8 Irrigated fields ridged for ginger; (1 ,p. 91 page 112
'\Iap of China's nine agricultural areas, showing
29 Dyked fields thien); SSTK 14!5h page 115
betw'een the region and the 30 'Counter fields' (kuei . SSTK I pal!,e 16
pp. 25 and 27 3I 'Counter fields'; TrVCNS II/I7a page 117
loesslands; S. \V vVilliams ( 3'2 'Sand fields' (sha thien); SSTK 14/1 Ib page 118
P·97· page Poldered fields thien); after F ei page i 19
Hoeing in the broad. northern plain; \ I; I I:) page + 34- Floating fields; SSTK 14/7a . page T20
Yangtze Delta landscape; China, Land afCharm and Beauty, p. page 35 'Silt fields' (thu thien); ~VClV"'S I 1/2 [b page 122
Terraces in Szechwan; ibid. p. 162 . page 18 Preserving the topsoil in loess terracing; after Leeming
Steep, forested hills of Southwest China; ibid. p. 151 page 2 fig. 5 . . . . . . . . . . '. page 27
The products of the Nine Provinces as given in Han sources page 37 A diagram showing the layout of pits in the ou chung system; .NCCS
Long-term Huctuations in average temperature in and 5/2a page 1.29
China; Chu Kho-Chen P.495 page 24- Different types of caschrom; J. lVIacdonald (I), p. 57 page 136
Nlap showing the chief mineral deficiencies of Chinese after 39 Common plough types . page 39
Shen (r), p. 25 page 26 40 Typical wooden turn-ploughs: (a) English: after Fitzherbert (1),
Map showing the percentage variability of annual rainfalL after Blith and Fentan (3); (b) Chinese: after WCNS 12/T3b,
Tregear fig. 16 page Hommel (J), p. 41; Alley & Bojesen (I) page 140
lvlap showing the percentage of land in different Yuan reconstruction of the lei ssu; W('""'.NS 12j2b page 143
after Buck (2), p. 187. page Reconstructions of the lei ssu: from the Khao K ung Chi Thu of 1746, the
The Semalle Scroll version of the Keng Chih Thu, Chhien- Sung Khao Kung Chi Chieh by Lin Hsi-I, and from Chheng Yao-
Lung's preface of 1769; Pelliot (24), pt. X . page Thien (2). . . . . . . . . . page 146
r6 Final page of the + 1590 Korean block-print edition of the Sw J·hn 43 Han reliefs of Shen Nung and Yii the Great wielding two-pronged
Tsuan rao, copied from a popular Hangchou edition of 996 page 50 digging implements; Nagahiro (1), p. 65; Hayashi (4), fig. 6--'4 page 147
! 7 Calendrical diagram from the + 13 I 3 vVang Chen }.(ung Shu; I 1/ 44 Archaic graphs of iei, based on Hsii Chung-Shu (10) page 148
26a--b page 54- l5 Reconstruction of the nu according to Sun Chhang-Hsii (1),
18 The hand-harrow, yiin thang, an innovation of the Yangtze area in p. 32 . page 148
the 14th century; TrVCNS I3/28a page 62 Various types of pu coin; Li Tso-Hsien (J) page 149
19 Variations in the same illustration in different versions of the Wang Egyptian glyphs for 'ard' and related words page 152
Chen Nung Shu page 63
Modern Chinese ards: (a) sole-handle ards; (b) Chinese ploughs
20 Archimedean scre",,' from the Thai Hsi Shui fa; Nces 19/1 5b- with a cross-handle on the stilt . page 153
16b . page 68
49 Archaic graphs for chhe, cart or chariot . page 154
21 Hsii's blueprint for a work certificate to be allotted to those who 50 Archaic graphs which may depict ox-ploughing page 154
participated in the officially organised maintenance of irrigation 51 Neolithic stone shares page 156
works; NCCS I 5/l 3(l page 69 V-shaped shares: stone, from the neolithic Liangchu culture;
Han pottery model of a winnowing fan and quem; Seattle Art
after Anon. p. 29; (b) Cast iron, from Honan; after Amano
lVluseum . page 78
(4), p. 736. page 157
Xll
XIV LIST OF ILL USTRATIONS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XV
53 Early European iron shares: (a) stangle shares; (b) sleeve shares; 71 Warring States mould for cast-iron hoe; Anon. (43), p. 65 page 206
after Balassa (I), figs. I & 4 page 163 72 Iron drag hoes: (a) Warring States, from Hopei; Hayashi (4),6-30;
54 Modem ploughs from Kansu with cap shares;JN orig. photos. page 164 (b) E. Han mural from Holingol, Mongolia; ibid. 6-31; (c) Ming;
55 Han ploughs: (a) Late Han wooden model from Wu-wei, Kansu; WeNS I317a; (d) modem; Hommel (I), fig. 93 . page 207
(b) E. Han stone relief from Mi-chih, Shensi; (c) E. Han stone 73 Chinese mattocks: (a) WeNS 13/Ib; (b) Nces 21/20a page 210
relief from Wei-te, Shensi; (d) Wang-Mang mural from Phing-Iu, 74 Asian hoes: (a) Chinese field hoes; after Wagner (I), fig. 60; (b)
Shansi; (e) E. Han stone relief from Theng-hsien, Shantung; (f) Javanese pachul of the late 18th century, after Raffles (I), p. 114;
E. Han stone re1ieffrom Sui-ning, Kansu . page 170 (c) Japanese hoes, NOgu Benri Ron 1/6b-7a. Cr. also Fig. 119 . page 2 I I
56 Chinese ploughshares: (a) Han shares; after Hayashi (4), figs. 6-16, 75 Cultivating with drag-hoe and chhang chhan; SSTK 32/9a . page 2 14
6-17, Liu Hsien-Chou (8), figs. 18, 20; (b) feng and kuan, after 76 Spade sketched by Juan Yuan in Shantung in the early Chhing page 2 15
Hayashi (4), fig. 6-15; (c) Archaeological finds of shares: Tharig 77 Han spades, with blades or tips of iron; Hayashi (4), 6-1, 6 and
iron and bronze shares after Liu Hsien-Chou (8), figs. 2 I, 22; 10 page 2 I 7
Chin/Yuan iron share from Liaoning, after Amano (4), p. 781; Korean tabi: (a) ancient engraving on bronze; Amano (4), p. 1019;
(d) Ming shares; WeNS 13/lOa and 13/1 la. page 172 (b) modern forms; Pauer (I), fig. 27 page 2 18
57 Modern Chinese ploughshares; after Amano (4), p. 800 . page I 74 79 Ming spade; WeNS 13/2b page 219
58 Chinese mould-boards: (a) Han, symmetrical or 'saddle-shaped'; 80 Flat harrows (pa); WeNS 12/8a page 224
after Anon. (510) and Liu Hsien-Chou (8), fig. 28; (b) Ming; 81 Vertical harrow (chhiao), as used in Sou thern rice fields; WeNS
WeNS 13/3a; (c) secured to the frame by metal loops: Sung; after 12/9b. . page 225
Liu (8), fig. 30; modern, from Chekiang, after Hommel (I), fig. 62; Wei/Chin murals from Chia-yii-kuan, Kansu, showing ploughing,
(d) modem types; after Amano (4), p. 800 . page 175 sowing and harrowing; Hayashi (4),6-32, 33. . page 226
59 Straight wooden European mould-board; Leser (I), fig. 148 page 178 Elizabethan English harrow; Markham (2), p. 64 . page 227
60 Chinese whipple-tree; K eng Chih Thu, Franke (I I), pI. XIV page 181 Modern Chinese harrows, after Wagner (I), p. 203. page 227
61 Reconstruction of the plough described in the Lei Ssu Ching page 183 Chinese bush harrow (lao); WCNS 12/IOb page 232
62 Variations in the Wang Chen Nung Shu illustrations of the Ovoid roller (lu thu); WCNS 12/14b page 235
plough page 184 Cylindrical ribbed roller, from the Sung-based illustration to the
Triangular Chinese ploughs from Shantung (IN orig. photo) and Keng Chih Thu; Pelliot (24), pI. XV page 236
from Shansi and Peking, after Amano (4), pp. 798-9 . page 190 88 Rollers with spikes (left) and blades (right) (ko chih); WeNS
Ploughs with downward-curving shares: (a) from Heilungkiang; JN 12/16 page 237
orig. photo; (b) from Hopei; (c) from Shantung; (d) from Hopei; 89 Bladed roller of the ko chih type from modem Chekiang; Hommel (I),
after Amano (4), p. 798 page 192 fig. 89 page 237
65 Coulter (li hua or li tao); WeNS I4/9a page 195 90 'Scraping board' (kuapan) forlevellingseed-beds; WeNS 14/30a. page 239
66 Scraper (chhan), an attachment to the plough designed to pare off 91 Soaking the rice seed in baskets; Keng ehih Thu, Franke (I I),
weeds; WeNS 13/14a. page 197 pI. XII page 248
Bone digging implements found at the early neolithic site of Broadcasting seed in 14th-century Europe, after the Luttrell Psalter,
Ho-mu-tu: (a) the bone blades; Anon. (503), fig. 7; (b) a wooden and in Southern China, Keng Chih Thu, Franke (I I), pI. XXII. page 253
haft; after Anon. (503), fig. 5; (c) author's reconstruction of the 93 Broadcasting seed and covering it with a beetle; Wei/Chin mural
attachment of blade to haft page 200
from Holingol, Mongolia; Hayashi (4),6-34 page 254
68 Chinese neolithic stone hoes; (a) after Anon. (43), p. 29; (b) from 94 Broadcasting wheat in South China and covering the seed with the
Anon. (503), fig. 6; (c) from Anon. (515), fig. 7 . page 201 feet; Ming illustration to the Thien Kung Khai Wu 1/17a page 255
69 Incised sign on a pot from a Hua-thing site, depicting what seems to 95 Chinese seed-drill (lou chhe); WCNS 12/17b page 257
be a heavy hoe; K. C. Chang (I), p. 163 page 203 96 Babylonian single-tube drill; Anderson (2) page 258
Stone 'spades' from neolithic sites in Kwangsi; (a) simple forms; 97 Multiple-tube drill and covering implement from South India; Hal-
Anon. (515), figs. 4, 5; (b) elaborated forms, ibid. fig. 6 page 204 cott (I) page 259
XVI LIST OF ILLVSTRA.TIONS LIST OF ILLl'STRATIONS XVll
A reconstruction of TuB's Anderson page Ridger; Anon.. p. 82 page:3 [3
99 as shown on the title-page of Maxev I page z6r 132 Hand weeding of nce: Keng Chih PeHiot XXI page l~
lOO Han seed-drill from Phing-Iu~ Shansi; Anon. pI. 6. page 133 Weeding claws: J;VCNS 1312gb page 315
{or Han seed-drills; Hayashi 23 . page 262 !34 Foot weeding in Szechwan; Anon. page 3r6
1\fodern seed-drill from Shantung; Hommd page 35 VVeed-roller (kun . fVCNS page 3 I
Drill share . l\rling, JlVCJ\'S r 31 I sb page l\rIodern Chinese hand-harrows: Hornmd (I), 97 page 319
setaria minet; TKKlV Japanese wheeled hand-harrow; Pauer (i), fig. 7 I page
If pa,ge Harvesting with sickles: Chih PeHiot
Chinese seed-dropping d) pI. XXIV. page 321
IlH::\Al<1l1.t::'U.Ii:>,
Amano page 139 Natufian sickle: Singer, Holmyard & Hall (i vo!. 1, p. 503 page 3'21
Chinese J40 Stone harvesting knife; Higuchi p. 107 page
p. 224 page qr Typology of Chinese neolithic reaping knives; Iinuma & Horio
Weighted bundle of branches used for seed: ~·VC.N:S p. 34· page 325
I '2{l page Looped knife: Higuchi ( p. 107 page
Roller wheels tlJr seed; TKli.lV r / I 6a page Hafted knife, as used in Malaya; after A. H. Hill (J ,tlg. page 326
T09 Sowing calabash (hu chung). Chhing drawing; SSTK 7a page 275 Han iron reaping knives; Hayashi 6-42b . page 327
I IO Pulling up rice seedlings and transporting them in bundles to the .Modern Chinese iron reaping knife; after Liu p. 116, page 327
field; Keng Chih Thu, PeHiot pI. XVIII page Rice-harvesting with reaping knives and scythes; stone relief in
! 11 Han model of a rice field from Kweichow; Anon. page 280 Szechwan Provincial Museum page 329
I I Transplanting rice-seedlings; Keng Chih Thu, Pelliot XIX 147 Balanced Italianfalx messoria; after K. D. 'White (1 ,p" 54 page 33 I
page 28r 148 Balanced Iranian sickle; Lerche (3), fig. 12 page 33'2
'Seedling horse' Cyang ma); JlVCNS 12/23b page 282 149 Unbalanced Chinese sickles; Hommd (I), fig. 103 page 333
Sketch of modern seedling horse made in Kwangtung in 1958 and ISO Unbalanced Japanese sickles; Nogu Benri Ron 2/'24a page 334
published in Jen iV/in Jih Pao; Amano (4), p. 239. page 283 1."}' r Mould f()r casting iron sickles; Han, from Hopei; after Liu (8),
Acljustable marker for transplanting rice seedlings, from Kiangsi; fig. 125 page 335
Anon, p. 386 . page 28,5 152 Stitched leather finger-stalls used by Iranian reapers; Lerche
116 Han model of combined pigsty and privy; Laufer fig. 1'2 page 29 I fig. 13 page
I 7 "Wheels of bean-waste manure; King (I), fig. 120 page 294 153 Hanging-frames (hang) for drying grain before storing; Keng Chih
lI8 Fertilising the rice seedlings; Ken,fj Chih 7hu, Imperial ed .. 1 page 296 Thu, PeIliot (24), pI. XXV. page 337
rIg Modern hand hoes; Hommel (I), fig. 9 I . page 302 154 Harvesting with scythes; Brueghel the Younger page 337
120 Heavy iron hoe of the Han period; Hayashi (4), page 302 155 English reaping or cradle scythe; after Partridge (I), p. 135 page 338
12I Ming hoe; WCJv'S 13/2Ia pal?e 303 156 Chinese scythe, wielded in a slashing motion; Hommel (I), p. 106 page 339
!22 Swan-necked hoes shown in an engraved stone sarcophagus of the 157 Chinese cradled scythe (pho); vVCNS 14/8a page 340
Sui dynasty; Nelson Gallery of Art, Kansas City, U,S.A. page 304 158 l\rIodern cradled scythe, corresponding to \Nang Chen's mai hsien;
123 Han swan-necked hoe; Hayashi (4),6-24 page 305 after Hopfen (I a), fig. 8g . page 34 I
124 Swan-necked hoe with interchangeable blades; Amano (7), I59 :Ming depiction ofmai lung; H'CNS 19/2Ib-22a page 341
fig. 50 page 305 I60 Roman stone relief showing a vallus, or reaping machine; from
Stirrup hoe; J;VCNS 13/2Sb page 306 Montauban-Buzenol, Belgium; VVhite (I), pi. 15. page 342
Weed scraper; Hommel (I), fig. g8. page 307 'Push scythe' (thui lien); WCNS 14/4b page 344
South Indian horse-hoe; orig. photo Axel Steensberg page 309 Han model of threshing-floor with quem and frame for trip-hammer
Modern Chinese horse-hoe; Anon. (502), p. 52 page 310 adjacent; Laufer (3), fig. 7 . page 346
.NIing horse-hoe; WCNS 13/24a page 312 Threshing on to a mat, using double-headed flails; Keng Chih Thu,
'Goose wing' for ridging soil; Anon. p. 80 page 3 I 3 Franke (Il), pI. XLIII page 346