Science and civilisation in China. Vol. 5, Chemistry and chemical technology : Pt. 11, ferrous metallurgy

270 Pages·2008·26.846 MB·English

by  Wagner, Donald B.

THE PICTURE OF THE TAOIST GENII PRINTED ON THE COVER
of this book is part of a painted temple scroll, recent but traditional, given to
Mr Brian Harland in Sichuan province (1946) by the philologist and epigrapher
Wen You il<lJ!i (1901-1985). Concerning these four divinities, of respectable rank in
the Taoist bureaucracy, the following particulars have been handed down. The title
of the first of the four signifies 'Heavenly Prince', that of the other three 'lVlysterious
Commander' .
At the top, on the left, is Liu TianJwI, Comptroller-General of Crops and Weather.
Before his deification (so it was said) he was a rain-making magician and weather
forecaster named Liu J un, born in the J in dynasty about +3-to. Among his attributes
may be seen the sun and moon, and a measuring-rod or carpenter's square. The two
great luminaries imply the making of the calendar, so important for a primarily agri
cultural society, the efforts, ever renewed, to reconcile celestial periodicities. The
carpenter's square is no ordinary tool, but the gnomon for measuring the lengths of
the sun's solstitial shadows. The Comptroller-General also carries a bell because in
ancient and medieval times there was thought to be a close connection between cal
endrical calculations and the arithmetical acoustics of bells and pitch-pipes.
At the top, on the right, is "Ven Yuan Shuai, Intendant of the Spiritual Officials of the
Sacred Mountain, Tai Shan. He was taken to be an incarnation of one of the Hour
Presidents (Jia Shell), i.e. tutelary deities of the twelve cyclical characters (see vol. 4,
pt. 2, p. 4{0). During his earthly pilgrimage his name was Huan Ziyu and he was a
scholar and astronomer in the Later Han (b. + l.p). He is seen holding an armillary ring.
Below, on the left, is Gou Yuan Shllai, Assistant Secretary of State in the Ministry
of Thunder. He is therefore a late emanation of a very ancient god, Lei Gong. Before
he became deified he was Xin Xing, a poor woodcutter, but no doubt an incarnation
of the spirit ofthe constellation Gou Chen (the Angular Arranger), part of the group
of stars which we know as Vrsa Minor. He is equipped with hammer and chisel.
Below, on the right, is Bi Yllan Shllai, Commander of the Lightning, with his flash
ing sword, a deity with distinct alchemical and cosmological interests. According to
tradition, in his early life he was a countryman whose name was Tian Hua. Together
with the colleague on his right, he controlled the Spirits of the Five Directions.
Such is the legendary folklore of common men canonised by popular acclamation.
An interesting scroll, of no great artistic merit, destined to decorate a temple wall, to
be looked upon by humble people, it symbolises something which this book has to
say. Chinese art and literature have been so profuse, Chinese mythological imagery
so fertile, that the West has often missed other aspects, perhaps more important, of
Chinese civilisation. Here the graduated scale of Liu J un, at first sight unexpected in
this setting, reminds us of the ever-present theme of quantitative measurement in
Chinese culture; there were rain-gauges already in the Song (+12th century) and
sliding calipers in the Han (+ISt). The armillary ring of Huan Ziyu bears witness
that Naburiannu and Hipparchus, al-Naqqas and Tycho, had worthy counterparts
in China. The tools of Xin Xing symbolise that great empirical tradition which
informed the work of Chinese artisans and technicians all through the ages.

SCIENCE AND CIVILISATION IN CHINA
Joseph Needham
(1900- 1995)
Certain it is that no people or group of peoples has had a monopoly in contributing
to the development of Science. Their achievements should be mutually recognised
and freely celebrated with the joined hands of universal brotherhood.
Science and Civilisation in China VOL UME I, PREFACE
*
Joseph Needham directly supervised the publication of seventeen books in the
Science and Civilisation in China series, from the first volume, which appeared in 1954,
through to Volume VI.3, which was in press at the time of his death in March 1995.
The planning and preparation of further volumes will continue. Responsibility
for the commissioning and approval of work for publication in the series is now
taken by the Publications Board of the Needham Research Institute in Cambridge,
under the chairmanship of Professor Christopher Cullen, who acts as general editor
of the series.
<I' ]OSEPH NEEDHAM
SCIENCE AND
Tit
CIVILISA TION IN
CHINA
i1
-*
VOLUME 5
CHEMISTRY AND
'* ~~ CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY
~
PART 11: FERROUS METALLURGY
~
~
BY
~ DONALD B. WAGNER
~
NORDIC INSTITUTE OF ASI.\N STUDIES
*
CNIYERSITY OF COPENHAGEN
J~
0 ~
~I
UCAMBRIDGE
::: UNIVERSITY PRESS
CA~IBRIDGE CNIVERSITY PRESS Dedicated to
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo, Delhi
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK LIJINGHUA **~
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org and to the memory of
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/978052I875660
© Cambridge Gniyersity Press 2008
RONALD FRANK TYLECOTE
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
Two archaeometallurgists, East and West, who can represent
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press. here the hundreds of metallurgists, archaeologists, and historians
on whose work this volume is based.
First published 2008
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
Nous nous devons premierement an otre Patrie; mais nous nous
A catalogue recordfor this publication is availablefrom the British Library devons aussi au reste du monde; ceux qui travaillent pour
perfoctionner les Sciences & les Arts, doivent meme se regarder
ISBN-I3 978-0-521-87566-0 hardback comme les Citoyens du monde entier.
Rene Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur (1722)
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy ofURLs for external
or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content
on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
CONTENTS
List qfi llustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. page xiii
List qftables .......................................................... xxii
List qft ext boxes ....................................................... xxiii
List qfa bbreviations .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv
Series editor's prifiJce .................................................... xxv
Priface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix
36(c) FERROUS METALLURGy ............................... page I
I Introduction,p. I
2 Introductory orientations: the traditional Chinese iron industry in recent
centuries, p. 5
(i) Small-scale ironworks of the Dabie Mountains, p. 7
Ironsand, p. 8
The blast furnace,p. 8
The finirIg hearth,p. 16
(ii) Large-scale ironworks in Sichuan, p. 2 I
The blast furnace,p. 22
The puddling furnace, p. 30
The Sichuan iron industry, p. 35
(iii) Crucible smelting in Shanxi, p. 38
Crucible smelting,p. 38
(iv) Large-and small-scale ironworks in Guangdong,p. 47
Small blast furnaces,p. 47
Large blast furnaces, p. 48
(v) Traditional Chinese iron-foundry technology, p. 60
(vi) Traditional Chinese steelmaking technology, p. 65
Cementation,p.66
Co-fusion,p.69
(vii) The modern fate of the Chinese iron industry, p. 73
Western competition,p. 74
Return on investment, p. 77
The effects of decline on technology,p. 78
The Great Leap Forward,p. 79
(viii) Digression: economies of scale in blast-furnace iron production,p. 81
3 The earliest use of iron in China,p. 83
(i) The state of the question, p. 83
IX
x CONTENTS CONTENTS Xl
Studies of the written sources,p. 83 (iii) The administration of the iron monopoly,p. 192
New light from archaeological material, p. 87 TheIron Offices, p. 192
(ii) Iron on the periphery of the Zhou Empire, p. 91 The archaeology of the Iron Offices, p. 200
Early iron in Korea, p. 97 Management,p.210
(iii) Early Chinese meteoritic and smelted iron, p. 98 Labour,p.217
Bronze-iron artefacts of the state of Guo with smelted and meteoritic iron, p. 100 (iv) Reasons for the monopoly, reasons for opposition,p. 221
Gold-iron artefacts in a grave in Shaanxi,p. 101 State finance, p. 22 I
A Qjn tomb in Gansu, p. 102 Contraband trade, p. 222
Possible counter-evidence, p. 103 Control of the wealthy,p. 223
(iv) Iron casting and the blast furnace, p. 105 Product quality, p. 224
Environmental issues,p. 228
4 The flourishing iron industry of the -3rd and -2nd centuries,p. 1I5
The trade cycle,p. 229
(i) The widespread use ofiron,p. 1I6
(v) The technology of the Iron Offices, p. 229
Textual evidence,p. 1I6
Blast furnaces, p. 231
Archaeological material, p. 1I7
Cupola furnaces, p. 237
Iron artefacts in graves ofChu and Qin,p. 122
The bellows,p. 239
(ii) The arts ofthe smith, p. 128
Fining hearths,p. 242
A mass grave offallen soldiers,p. 128
(vi) Concluding remarks,p. 245
Quench-hardening in early Chinese thought,p. 134
Bloomery smelting versus fining,p. 137 6 The arts of the smith from late Han through Tang,p. 249
(iii) Ironworks and ironmasiers, p. 140 (i) Iron and the state, p. 249
Ironmasters,p. qo (ii) Wider knowledge of siderurgical techniques, p. 252
Ironworks, p. 144 (iii) Co-fusion steelmaking,p. 255
The rise of the state ofQjn,p. 146 Lower-temperature co-fusion,p. 257
(iv) The arts of the foundryman,p. 147 Higher-temperature co-fusion,p. 258
Melting furnaces,p. 147 Some Han steelmaking crucibles,p. 261
Moulds,p.150 Crucible steel?,p. 264
(v) Malleable cast iron,p. 159 Other times and places, p. 264
White and grey cast iron,p. 161 (iv) What was bin iron - Persian steel, Indian steel, watered steel?,p. 268
Malleable cast iron, p. 164 . (v) 'Hundredfold refined steel', p. 272
5 The Han state monopoly of the iron industry,p. 171 7 Technical evolution and economic revolution in the Song period, p. 278
(i) Outline history of the monopoly, p. 172 (i) The uses ofiron,p. 280
Background, p. 172 Artefacts from some Yuan ships, p. 280
The establishment of the monopoly, p. 175 Some agricultural implements, p. 281
Criticism and disputation, p. 178 A blacksmith's story, p. 281
The reforms ofWang Mang,p. 183 Iron coins, p. 286
The Eastern Han period, p. 184 Iron monuments, p. 289
(ii) Discourses on salt and iron, p. 185 The Lion ofCangzhou,p. 291
The state and the forces of nature, p. 186 Cast-iron artillery, p. 292
The scale of industrial production,p. 187 (ii) The ironworks,p. 294
The blessings of wealth, p. 188 Liguo Industrial Prefecture,p. 300
The body politic, p. 189 Wealthy ironmasters in Dengzhou, p. 301
Calculation,p.190 Corvee iron production in Hancheng, p. 303
xn CONTENTS
(iii) The technology of iron and steel production, p. 305
Blast furnaces, p. 305
The use of mineral fuel in iron smelting,p. 3I!
ILLUSTRATIONS
Digression: the early use of mineral fuel in English
iron smelting, p. 313
Mineral fuel in Song-Yuan iron smelting, p. 3 [7 PLATES
Shen Gua on steel and steelrnaking, p. 320
A Yuan-period cupola furnace,p. 324
Between pages 222 and 223.
8 Economic expansion in the Ming period, p. 326
(i) The state ironworks in Zunhua, Hebei, 1403-[58[,P. 327 I-VIII The first eight in an album of twelve gouache paintings by an
Background,p·327 unknown Chinese artist. Reproduced with the permission of the
Zunhua,p·328 Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
Establishment,p·330 IX 'Pouring molten iron' (luo tie shui rJ?rjl7l<), gouache painting by an
FuJun's description of technology at Zunhua,p. 332 unknown Chinese artist, probably in Guangzhou, mid-19th
Operating parameters, p. 334 century. Reproduced with the permission of the British Library.
Closure, p. 337 x Melting iron? Gouache painting by an unknown Chinese artist,
Recapitulation, p. 338 probably in Guangzhou, mid-[9th century. Reproduced with
(ii) Iron and steel production technology in Song Yingxing's Tiangong the permission ofMartyn Gregory Gallery, London.
kai wu,p. 339 XI Wok repairman, gouache painting by the Chinese artist Y ou-qua in
Guangzhou, mid-[9th century. Reproduced with the permission
9 Some Chinese contributions to modern siderurgical technology, p. 347 of The Royal Library, Copenhagen.
(i) Indirect smelting: blast furnace + finery,p. 347 XII Photographs and sketched reconstructions of two bronze-iron
Carolingian blast furnaces?, p. 348
weapons of the early Zhou period, reproduced from Gettens
Blast furnaces in the Caspian provinces of northern Iran, p. 349
et al. ([971).
Austria - the Stuckqfon, p. 352
XIII Two photographs of a bronze-iron yue-axehead from a late Shang
Early blast furnaces in Sweden, p. 353 city-site at Taixicun in Gaocheng County, Hebei, reproduced
Germany - the Massqfen, p. 354 from Tang Yunming and Liu Shishu (1973).
Italy, p. 355 XN Photograph of a bronze-irony ue-a.xehead found in a Shang period
The blast furnace from China to Europe?,p. 356
grave excavated at Liujiahe in Pinggu County, Beijing Munici
(ii) Iron casting, p. 356
pality, reproduced from YuanJinjing and Zhang Xiande ([977).
(iii) Malleable cast iron, p. 357
XV Sketch and photograph of a spearhead of bronze and jade from a
(iv) The Bessemer process? Chinese ironworkers in western
Shang period tomb at Huayuanzhuang in Anyang, Henan,
I(entucky, [854,P.36[
reproduced from Xu Guangde and He Yuling (2004).
(v) Shanxi crucible smelting in Sweden - the H6ganas process, p. 365
XVI Photograph and sketch of an iron short-sword with hilt of bronze,
10 Epilogue, p. 369 jade, and turquoise from the tomb of Guo Ji in Sanmenxia,
Henan, reproduced from Anon. (1999).
Bibliography A: Pre-modern Chinese andJapanese books .............. . . . . . . . . . . .. page 372 XVII Photographs and sketches of a bronze-iron dagger-a.xe head with
turquoise inlay from the tomb of Guo Ji in Sanmenxia, Henan,
Bibliograpl~y BIC: 1l1odern publications in all languages .............................. 381
reproduced from Anon. ([999).
Index ................................................................. 449 XVIII Sketch of a bronze-iron spearhead from the tomb ofGuo Zhong in
Table qfClzinese periods and 4ynasties .......................................... 478 Sanmenxia, Henan, reproduced from Han Rubin et al. ([999).
xnI
XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XV
XIX Sketch of a bronze-iron dagger-axe head with turquoise inlay from XLVI Two Chinese guns sketched in 1860 at the Dagu Forts, in modern
the tomb of Guo Zhong in Sanmenxia, Henan, reproduced Tianjin. Reproduced from Banks (1861).
from Han Rubin et al. (1999)' XLVII Large gun in the Capital Museum, Beijing, cast in 1643. Photos
Sketch of a bronze-iron adze-head from the tomb of Guo Zhong XLVIII byDBW, 1987.
in Sanmenxia, Henan, reproduced from Han Rubin et al.
(1999)·
FIGURES
XXI Sketch of a bronze-iron scraper-blade in a wooden sheath from the
tomb of Guo Zhong in Sanmenxia, Henan, reproduced from Flow diagram of traditional Chinese blast-furnace iron production page 6
Han Rubin et al. (1999). 2 Map of the Dabieshan region .............................. . 7
)c,(II, )c,(III Iron short-sword with inlaid gold hilt from Grave no. M2 at Yirnen Blast furnace in Xinyang, Henan, photographed ca. 1917, reproduced
cun in Baoji Municipality, Shaanxi, reproduced from Tian from Tegengren (1923-24) ............................. . 9
Renxiao (1993). 5 Blast furnace in Jinzhai, Anhui, ca. 1958, reproduced from Anon.
Iron and bronze artefacts from Grave no. M2 at Yirnencun in Baoji (1959d) ............................................ . IQ
Municipality, Shaanxi, reproduced from Tian Renxiao (1993)' 6 Iron smelting in a traditional blast furnace, reproduced from r~jin baD,
)c,(VII Photograph and sketch of a fragment of a bronze-iron short-sword 1959, no. I .......................................... . IQ
from Tomb no. MI atJingjiazhuang in Lingtai County, Gansu, 7 Sketch of the HuangJiguang blast furnace in Macheng, Hubei, repro-
reproduced from Liu Dezhen and ZhuJiantang (1981). duced from Anon. (1958c) ............................. . II
XXVIII Three Chinese iron coins in a private Danish collection. Photos by 8 Vertical section of the Huang Jiguang blast furnace in Macheng,
DBW. Hubei, redrawn from Anon. (1958c) ...................... . 12
XXIX Four cast-iron warriors guarding the 'Depository of Ancient Spirits' 9 Plan of a 'smelting house' at East Wind People's Commune
of the Zhong Yue Temple in Dengfeng, Henan, reproduced in Muziclian, Macheng County, Hubei, reproduced from
from Chavannes (1909-15)' Anon. (1958c) ....................................... .
X)C'(-XXXI One of the warriors shown in Plate )c,(L,(. Photos by DBW, 1987. IQ Diagram of a modern large-scale coal-fuelled iron blast furnace, after
XXXII 'Iron men' and 'iron oxen' cast in +724 as anchors for the floating Peacey and Davenport (1979) and Rosenqvist (1974) ......... .
bridge over the Yellow River at Pujin, in modern Yongji II Diagram of a fining hearth used in Shangcheng, Henan, in 1958,
County, Shanxi, under excavation and conservation. Photos by reproduced from Yang Kuan (1982, p. 225); orig. Anon. (1958b) .... 17
Tang Huancheng and John Moffet. Archives of the Needham 12 Drawing by E. T. Nystrom of a pair of fining hearths in southern
Research Institute. Henan, ca. 1917, reproduced by courtesy of Tom Nystrom and the
)C'{.'(lII The 'Iron Rhinoceros' in the village ofTieniu, 2 km northeast of Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm ............ .
XXXIV Kaifeng, dated 1446. Photos by DBW, 1987. Sketch and sections of a water-powered blast furnace at Huangnipu in
XXXV The Cangzhou Lion, reproduced from Read (1937). Rongjing County (modern Yingjing), Sichuan, ca. 1877, repro-
XXXVI The Cangzhou Lion, photos by DBW, 1987. duced from Szechenyi (1893) ........................... .
XXXVIII Blast furnaces in Sichuan in the 1930s, reproduced from Luo Mian
)C'(XJX Sketch showing how the Cangzhou Lion was cast, reproduced from (1936) ............................................. .
Wu Kunyi et al. (1984). 16 Internal form of two traditional blast furnaces in Sichuan in 1940,
XL Qing period cast-iron gun, photographed by DBW at the Great redrawn from Wang Ziyou (1940) ....................... . 29
Bell Temple, Beijing, 1984. Diagram of a puddling hearth in Sichuan, reproduced from Luo Mian
XLI Cast-iron gun, cast in 1841, photographed by DBW in front of the (1936) ............................................. .
Guangzhou Museum, 1984. 18 Photograph of the front of a puddling hearth in Sichuan, reproduced
XLII The moulding and casting of a gun: line drawings and gouache from Luo Mian (1936) ................................. .
XLV paintings by unknown Chinese artists. Reproduced with the 19 Photograph of the back of a puddling hearth in Sichuan, reproduced
permission of the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. from Luo Mian (1936) ................................. .
XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XVll
20-21 Two types of puddling furnace used in Sichuan in 1958, redrawn from Equilibrium conditions for certain reactions which are important in
YangKuan(1960) ................................... . 34 bloomery smelting ................................... .
22 Stall furnace for crucible iron smelting in southern ShaIL'{i, photo- 42 Map showing the major place-names mentioned in Section 3 ..... .
graph reproduced from Kocher (1921) ................... . 39 43 Photographs and sketches of iron knives from early graves in Xinjiang,
Lumps of cast iron and puddled wrought iron in southern Shanxi, reproduced from Cong Dexin et al. (1990a; 199ob); Sun Binggen
photograph reproduced from Kocher (1921) ............... . 39 and Chen Ge (1988); Anon. (1989) ....................... . 96
2..J. Stall furnace for crucible iron smelting somewhere in Shanxi, photo- Iron artefacts from two graves at Chengqiao in Luhe County,Jiangsu,
graph reproduced from Dickmann (1932) ................. . 40 reproduced from Wang Zunguo et al. (1965, pI. 1.9); Anon. (1974a,
Crucible smelting of iron in progress in Gaoping County, Shanxi, pI. 6.8); and Huang Zhanyue (1976) ...................... . 106
photograph reproduced from Shockley (1904) ............. . 40 A sawtoothed sickle-blade, with magnified detail and cross-section,
26 Operation of a furnace in Shanxi for converting cast iron to wrought reproduced from Yun Xiang (1985) ...................... . 108
iron, photograph reproduced from Alley (196Ia) ............ . 42 47 Two bronze toothed 'harvesting knives' from a hoard found in
One possible reconstruction of an early Qing blast furnace investigated Suzhou. Reproduced from ,J{YKG 1982 (no. 2) ....... '., ... . 108
at Luxia Village in Luoding County, Guangdong, reproduced Bronze caps for digging implements, reproduced from Anon. (1974a);
from Cao Tengfei and Li Caiyao (1985) ................... . 55 Yang Jiuxia (1982); LiJiahe et al. (1977); Wang Heping (1983; 1984);
28 Diagram of a traditional Chinese cupola furnace, reproduced from Yang Ding'ai (1984); Xu Dingshui (1980); Liao Zhihao and Luo
Gottwald (1938) ..................................... . 60 Baoyun (1982); Liao Zhihao (1982) .. , ....... , .. , ... ,., .. ,. 109-10
29 Diagram and photographs of a 'Chinese cupola furnace with Euro- 49 Bronze 'weeding hoes', reproduced from Wang Heping (1983; 1984);
pean influence', reproduced from Gottwald (1938) .......... . 6i Yang Xizhang (1980); Lu Maocun (1980) ........... , ...... . III
Operation of a cupola furnace in Chengdu, Sichuan, photographed by 50--54 Artefacts from Grave no. l\I44 at the Xiadu site, reproduced from Liu
Joseph Needham in 1943. Archives of the Needham Research Shishu (1975) ..................... , ........ ,., ....... . II8-21
Institute, Cambridge ................................. . 62 55 Bronze ding-cauldron from a Chu grave at Yutaishan in Jiangling,
Small cupola furnace photographed in the 1920S in De'an, Jiangxi, Hubei, reproduced from Anon. (1984C) ........ ', ... ,.,., .. 123
reproduced from Hommel (1937) ........................ . Crossbow-bolts from Chu graves at Yutaishan in Jiangling, Hubei,
32 'Tapping, Anhwei', photograph reproduced from Alley (196Ib) reproduced from Anon. (1984C) .................... , .... . 123
33 Scissors made by a Chinese smith in the 1960s or 1970s, photo by 57 Iron implement-cap from a grave of period 5 in the Chu
DBW ............................................. . cemetery at Yutaishan in Jiangling, Hubei, reproduced from
34 Diagram of a section through a Chinese razor, reproduced from Mid- Anon. (1984c) .................. , .......... , ......... . 124
dleton (1913) ........................................ . 58 Iron artefacts from graves excavated at Gaozhuang in Fengxiang
35 Wall of old crucibles in Lanzhou, Gansu, photographed by Joseph County, Shaanxi, reproduced from Wu Zhenfeng and Shang
Needham in 1943. Archives of the Needham Research Institute, Zhiru (1981) ............................... , ....... ,. 125
Cambridge ......................................... . 68 59-60 Artefacts from Warring States period graves at Banpo in Xi'an,
Diagram of a steel-anointing furnace at Beibei in Chongqing, 1938, Shaanxi, reproduced fromJin Xueshan (1957) .......... , ... .
redrawn from Zhou Zhihong (1955) ....................... . Sketch of the microstructure of a sword fragment from the Xiadu site
37 Photograph of a steel-anointing furnace m Sichuan, ca. 1936, in Yi County, Hebei, reproduced from Li Zhong (1975) .. " ...
reproduced from Luo Mian (1936) ....................... . 62-63 Micrographs from the sword fragment from the Xiadu site, repro-
Photograph by Joseph Needham of the operation of a steel-anointing duced from Li Zhong (1975) ........................ , ... ,
furnace at Beibei in Chongqing, 1958. Archives of the Needham Gold-inlaid scribe's-knife from the tomb of Liu Sheng in Mancheng,
Research Institute, Cambridge ......................... . 72 Hebei, reproduced from Anon. (1980c) .. , ...... , ..... , ... . 139
39 Diagram of a bloomery furnace used in N ornas, Sarna Parish, Sweden, Ring-pommelled sabre discovered in Cangshan County, Shandong,
in 1851, redrawn from Buchwald (1991) ................... . '90 reproduced from Chen Zijing and Liu Xinjian (1974) ........ . 139
40 Family ironworks in Dalecarlia, central Sweden, early 18th century, 66 Knife from the tomb of Beautiful Lady Xu in Luoyang, Henan, repro-
reproduced from the 1845 reprint ofSchultze (1732) ......... . 91 duced fromJiang Ruoshi and Guo Wenxuan (1957) ...... , . , .. 139