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Science and American Foreign Relations since World War II ThesciencesplayedacriticalroleinAmericanforeignpolicyafterWorld War II. From atomic energy and satellites to the Green Revolution, scientificadvanceswerecentraltoAmericandiplomacyintheearlyCold War, as the United States leveraged its scientific and technical preemi- nencetosecurealliancesandmarkets.Thegrowthofappliedresearchin the1970s,exemplifiedbythebiotechindustry,ledthe UnitedStatesto promote global intellectual property rights. Priorities shifted with the collapseoftheSovietUnion,asattentionturnedtoinformationtechnol- ogy and environmental sciences. Today, international relations take placewithinascientificandtechnicalframework, whetherinthehead- lines on global warming and the war on terror or in the fine print of intellectual property rights. Science and American Foreign Relations since World War II provides the historical background necessary to understandthecontemporarygeopoliticsofscience. isAssistantProfessorofHistoryattheUniversityof Colorado,Denver. Cambridge Studies in USForeignRelations Editedby PaulThomasChamberlin,ColumbiaUniversity Lien-HangT.Nguyen,ColumbiaUniversity This series showcases cutting-edge scholarship in US foreign relations that employs dynamic new methodological approaches and archives from the colonial era to the present. The series will be guided by the ethos of transnationalism, focusing on the historyofAmericanforeignrelationsinaglobalcontextratherthanprivilegingtheUS asthedominantactorontheworldstage. AlsointheSeries JasperM.Trautsch,TheGenesisofAmerica:U.S.ForeignPolicyandtheFormation ofNationalIdentity,1793–1815 HideakiKami,DiplomacyMeetsMigration:USRelationswithCubaduringthe ColdWar ShaulMitelpunkt,IsraelintheAmericanMind:TheCulturalPoliticsofUS-Israeli Relations,1958–1988 PierreAsselin,Vietnam’sAmericanWar:AHistory ElisabethLeake,TheDefiantBorder:TheAfghan-PakistanBorderlandsintheEra ofDecolonization,1936–1965 TuongVu,Vietnam’sCommunistRevolution:ThePowerandLimitsofIdeology MichaelE.Neagle,America’sForgottenColony:Cuba’sIsleofPines LloydE.Ambrosius,WoodrowWilsonandAmericanInternationalism GeoffreyC.Stewart,Vietnam’sLostRevolution:NgôĐìnhDiệm’sFailuretoBuild anIndependentNation,1955–1963 RenataKeller,Mexico’sColdWar:Cuba,theUnitedStates,andtheLegacyofthe MexicanRevolution Science and American Foreign Relations since World War II GREG WHITESIDES UniversityofColoradoDenver UniversityPrintingHouse,Cambridge,UnitedKingdom OneLibertyPlaza,20thFloor,NewYork,10006,USA 477WilliamstownRoad,PortMelbourne,3207,Australia 314–321,3rdFloor,Plot3,SplendorForum,JasolaDistrictCentre, NewDelhi–110025,India 79AnsonRoad,#06–04/06,Singapore079906 CambridgeUniversityPressispartoftheUniversityofCambridge. ItfurtherstheUniversity’smissionbydisseminatingknowledgeinthepursuitof education,learning,andresearchatthehighestinternationallevelsofexcellence. www.cambridge.org Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9781108420440 :10.1017/9781108303965 ©GregWhitesides2019 Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements, noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten permissionofCambridgeUniversityPress. Firstpublished2019 PrintedandboundinGreatBritainbyClaysLtd,ElcografS.p.A. AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData :Whitesides,Greg,author. :ScienceandAmericanforeignrelationssinceWorldWarII/ GregWhitesides,UniversityofColorado,Denver. :Cambridge,UnitedKingdom;NewYork,NY:Cambridge UniversityPress,2019.|Series:CambridgestudiesinUSforeignrelations| Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. :2018034473|9781108420440(hardback:alk.paper)| 9781108409919(paperback:alk.paper) ::Scienceandinternationalrelations–UnitedStates–History–20thcentury.| Scienceandinternationalrelations–UnitedStates–History–21stcentury.|UnitedStates– Foreignrelations–1945-1989.|UnitedStates–Foreignrelations–1989– :1254.452019|327.73–23 LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2018034473 978-1-108-42044-0Hardback CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceoraccuracy ofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredtointhispublication anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwillremain, accurateorappropriate. Dedicated to my family and Lee Contents List of Figures pagexi Acknowledgments xiii List of Abbreviations xiv Introduction 1 ScientificUniversalism,Privilege,andNationalService 8 AppliedSciences,Commerce,andAmericanForeign RelationstoWorldWarI 11 Science,WorldWarI,andInterwarModernity 15 1 The Battle of theLaboratories 21 NationBound 23 ScienceandAmericanForeignRelationsbefore WorldWarII 24 OSRDandtheManhattanProject 28 TheAtomicBombandQuestionsAfter 32 AtLooseEnds 34 PostwarInstitutionsandInternationalism 35 AtomicEnergyandEspionage 37 US–SovietConflictovertheWHO 40 TheKRAffairandaScientificIronCurtain 42 Rebound 45 ScienceinOccupiedGermany 46 ScienceinOccupiedJapan 49 ScienceandEuropeanReconstruction 53 vii viii Tableof Contents 2 Science Contained 59 Co-Option 64 AmericanScienceintheEarlyColdWar 66 McCarthyismandtheGlobalScientificCommunity 69 Cooperation 73 AmericanNuclearDiplomacy:AtomsforPeace 74 TheEuropeanCenterforNuclearResearch(orCERN) 78 TheInternationalGeophysicalYear 80 TheFreedomofSpaceandSputnik 84 Competition 87 ReorganizationatHome 88 AmericanDiplomacyafterSputnik 90 TheMoonLanding 94 TheLegacyofEarlyColdWarScientificCompetition 96 3 The Quiet War 99 ModernCommitments 102 TheBackgroundtoPointFour 103 TheDomesticandInternationalResponse 105 PointFour 108 OnPoint 112 ThreeDecadesofAssistancetoIran 113 AnEvolvingMixofPrograms,Goals,andParticipants 118 TheSovietChallengeintheDevelopingWorld 122 TheAllianceforProgress 125 DemographicContainment 129 GlobalHealthandtheMalariaEradicationProgram 130 TheMexicanAgriculturalProgram,theFAO,andPL-480 FoodAid 133 TheGreenRevolutioninIndia,thePhilippines,andVietnam 136 PopulationControls 139 LegaciesofColdWarScientificandTechnicalAssistance 143 4 The Crossing Point 145 Eruption 149 TheEnvironmentalMovement,VietnamWar,andCollapse ofConsensus 150 TheInternationalBiologicalProgramandGlobalGovernance 154 MarketBiology 158 TheLegalandScientificBackgroundtoBiotechnology 159 Interferon,theGeopoliticsofOverinvestment,andAmerican Diplomacy 160 TheG-77,Genetics,andtheISTC 163