Satellite Hydrocarbon Exploration: Interpretation and Integration Techniques

318 Pages·1994·42.673 MB·English

by  Dr. Zeev Berger (auth.)

Zeev Berger Satellite
Hydrocarbon
Exploration
Interpretation and
Integration Techniques
With 267 Figures, Including 43 Color Plates
Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg New York
London Paris Tokyo
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Budapest
Dr. Zeev Berger
Berger Enterprises Ltd.
P. O. Box 72054
1600-90Av. SW
T2V 5HO Calgary
Alberta, Canada
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-78589-4 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-78587-0
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-78587-0
library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Ber
ger, Zeev. Satellite hydrocarbon exploration: interpretati
on and integration techniques/Zeev Berger. p. cm. In
cludes bibliographical references and index.
I.Petrole
um Prospecting Remote sensing. I. Title.
TN24.P4B47 1994 622'.1828-dc20 94-8948 CIP
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© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1994
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1994
The use of general descriptive names, registered names,
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Typesetting: Appl, Wemding
SPIN: 10129945 32/3130-5 4 3 2 1 0
Printed on acid-free paper
Dedicated to the memory
of my mentor, Dr. Jacob Aghassy,
and his wife, Ahuva,
both dear friends who lost their lives
in a tragic airplane accident
over the skies of Pittsburgh.
Preface
Opening Remarks and spectral signatures which are manifested on
satellite imagery data.
The debut of satellite imaging systems on board This book aims to fill that gap. It is based on ex
Landsat I in 1972 was a technological advance of perience gained in the past 14 years by me and
considerable interest to earth scientists in general other members of the remote sensing and the
and exploration geologists in particular. Two major structural analysis research groups at Exxon Pro
uses were anticipated for the satellite data. First, it duction Research Company. Explorationists from
was expected to replace the traditional aerial pho various Exxon affiliates which have used image
tograph that had proven to be useful for mapping data to support hydrocarbon exploration have also
geological structures, whether well exposed at the contributed. The examples used here, therefore,
surface or obscured by thick vegetative and soil co are taken directly from Exxon's case studies and
verage. In addition, it was predicted that the spec training material. The reader must bear in mind
tral information provided by the imaging systems that some of the examples which are illustrated
could be used to directly detect hydrocarbons from here have been modified to some extent for the sake
space. of simplicity as well as for proprietary reasons. Un
Ne arly three decades of satellite image applicati less specified, the interpretation presented here
on have proven that the technology aptly fulfIlls the does not necessarily reflect the present understand
first role. Satellite image interpretation is now con ing by Exxon of the area described, but rather the
sidered to be a conventional exploration tool, used writer's and his colleagues' interpretation at the
routinely for regional geological mapping and iden time the studies were done.
tification of prospect scale structures. We have also Throughout the text, attempts are made to recog
learned that the key to successful application of this nize the contributions of individuals. However, as
technology is in its integration with other explorati signing credit to one specific source is not always
on tools such as seismic, well, gravity and magnetic possible. The major contributing authors also are
data. However, there is no evidence to date that ima credited in the acknowledgment.
ging systems from space can provide any reliable
surface information that directly indicates the accu
mulation of hydrocarbons at depth.
Nearly all the available remote sensing textbooks Organization of the Book
are designed to provide comprehensive information
on remote sensing technology. To an exploration ge The book is divided into two major parts. The first is
ologist, such books contain too much technical in designed to introduce the reader to the fundamental
formation on the systems themselves rather than on principles of image technology, interpretation and
the specific techniques for analyzing the images. integration. The first chapter describes the various
Furthermore, these books generally lack three in satellite imaging systems, their operation and sur
gredients which would make them truly beneficial face mapping capabilities. The second chapter dis
to the explorationist: (1) examples of satellite ima cusses common methods of computer enhancement
ge interpretation that are supported by surface and, of satellite imagery data. The next three chapters
more importantly, subsurface controls; (2) demon describe the typical diagnostic surface features that
strations of a systematic approach to the interpreta are used to detect the expression of, first, well-ex
tion and integration of satellite image data as part of posed and, then, buried or obscured structures.
an exploration program; and (3) synthesis of the Detection of basement warp structures, which are a
processes that lead to the structural, geomorphic unique subgroup of buried structures, receives its
VIII
own chapter because it requires specialized inte Townsend, H. R. Hopkins, T. P. Harding, R. L. Dodge,
gration techniques. Chapter 6 deals with stereo D. W. Phelps, C. C. Wielchowsky, D. M. Davidson,
image production, viewing and interpretation tech B. F. Merembeck, R. L. Kite and J. R. Kyle. Imagery
niques. The whole range of interpretation tools are products were made by R. L. Vernon and J. E. Firey.
used in Chapter 7 to demonstrate a step-by-step ap Many of the drafted maps were made by S. D.
proach to the integration of satellite image interpre Adharsingh. Thanks, also to H. R. Hopkins for his
tation into a conventional hydrocarbon exploration enthusiastic support in assisting in the publication
program. Chapter 8 covers several additional as of this book. Finally, this book would have never
pects ofimage interpretation including direct detec been finished without the contribution of my son,
tion of hydrocarbons, photostratigraphic mapping Shai, who edited, drafted and rephrased several
of outcrops and logistic applications (marine and portions of this book, particularly those which cover
on-shore). his areas of expertise in physics and engineering.
The second part of the book (Chaps. 9-14) provi
des additional examples from six areas represen
ting a wide range of structural complexities and Financial Support
surface conditions. These examples, which are con
strained with a considerable amount of surface and Financial support for the production of the color
subsurface control, can be used for further training plates was given by
and testing of the concepts illustrated in the first
part. • Intera Information Technologies, Ltd., Calgary,
A glossary of terms is provided at the end of the Canada.
book followed by an Appendix containing a sum • The Earth Observation Satellite Company
mary of symbols used for image interpretation in (EOSAT), USA.
this book. Reviewing these terms and symbols in ad • SPOT Image, France.
vance should prove beneficial to the reader. Also in
cluded is a brief list of major suppliers of imagery
data and ways to contact them for further inquiries. Calgary, 1994 ZeevBerger
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, this book would never have
been written without the influence of two of my
former professors, who introduced me to the beauty
of geology, geomorphology and field observations -
Dr. Akiva Flexer and Dr. Jacob Aghassy. This book
was reviewed by H. R. Hopkins and D. C. Peters.
Selected portions were reviewed by F. F. Sabins, Jr.,
D. Simpson, H. R. Lang, R. Welch, M. A. Chapman,
S. H. Lingrey and M. Covey. Their suggestions and
contributions are greatly appreciated. Thanks are
due to the Exxon Production Research Company
(EPRco) and several Exxon affiliates for support of
this effort and for allowing me to publish their data.
Special thanks to Imperial Oil Resources Limited,
especially the drafting department, for their conti
nuous support, to Intera Inc. for providing radar
data and to EOSAT and SPOT for releasing imagery
data for publication. Special contributions to this
book were made by several individuals from the
remote sensing and structural analysis group at
EPRco including F. V. Corona, R. L. Brovey, T. E.
Contents
Part 1 Fundamentals of Remote Sensing Technology, 2.2.5 Edge Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44
Interpretation and Integration 2.3 Information Extraction Techniques. . . . . . . . .. 45
2.3.1 Spectral Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45
2.3.2 Supervised Classification. . . . . . . . . . .. 47
Chapter 1 Imaging Systems .................... 3
2.3.3 Unsupervised Classification ......... 48
1.1 Introduction............................ 3
2.4 Merged Imagery ........................ 48
1.2 The Multispectral Scanning System . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.5 Sununary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49
1.2.1 The Advantages of Multispectral
References and Further Reading ............... 50
Imaging......................... 6
1.2.2 A Word of Caution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 The Thematic Mapper .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Chapter 3 Image Interpretation Techniques:
1.3.1 Changes in Spectral Range .......... 8 Exposed Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
3.1 Defmitions and Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
1.3.2 Advantages of Increased Spatial
3.2 Analysis of Exposed Folds ................. 54
Resolution and Spectral Range ....... 9
3.2.1 Dip and Strike of Inclined Bedrock
1.4 The SPOT Satellite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
Strata.... . .... .... . . . ... .. . . .... 54
1.4.1 Off-Nadir Viewing Capabilities ....... 12
3.2.2 Landforms Related to Inclined Bedrock
1.5 RadarImagery.......................... 14
Strata .......................... 56
1.5.1 Background...................... 14
3.2.3 Shadowing Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
1.5.1.1 FactorsAffectingReflection
Intensity ........................ 16 3.2.4 Geomorphic Expressions of Different
Fold Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
1.5.1.2 Factors Affecting Resolution-Range
3.2.5 Complications in the Expressions of
Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
Folded Strata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
1.5.1.3 Factors Affecting Resolution =-Azimuth
3.3 Analysis of Exposed Faults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66
Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
3.3.1 Surface Expressions of Fault
1.5.2 Advantages of Mapping with
Radar Imagery ................... 18 Scarps... . .... .... . . . ... .. . ..... 66
3.3.2 Geomorphic Expressions of Different
1.5.2.1 Cloud Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
1.5.2.2 "Treetop Geology" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18 Fault Types ...................... 68
1.5.2.3 Surface Roughness Detection ........ 19 3.3.2.1 Multidirectional Positive ............ 68
3.3.2.2 Parallel Composite ................ 69
1.5.2.4 Preferred Look Directions ... . ... .... 21
3.3.2.3 Linear Negative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69
1.5.2.5 Stereo Radar Imaging of Geological
3.3.2.4 Sinuous Positive .................. 69
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24
3.3.3 Modification of Fault-Line Traces ..... 69
1.5.3 Problems with Radar Imagery ........ 25
3.3.3.1 Inverted ........................ 69
1.5.3.1 Slant Range Images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25
3.3.3.2 Pseudo-Fault. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70
1.5.3.2 Layover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25
3.3.3.3 Polyphase ....................... 70
1.5.4 Spaceborne Radar Systems in Use . . . .. 25
3.4 Surface and Structural Patterns of Different
1.5.5 Future Spaceborne Radar Systems .... 28
Structural Styles ........................ 70
1.5.6 Evaluation of Space Radar. . . . . . . . . .. 29
1.6 Sununary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32 3.4.1 Compressional vs. Extensional
Basement-Involved Fault Block Styles.. 71
References and Further Reading ............... 32
3.4.2 Wrench Fault Assemblages . . . . . . . . .. 73
3.4.3 Decollement Thrust Fault
Chapter 2 Digital Image Manipulation ............ 35
Assemblages .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 74
2.1 Introduction............................ 35
3.4.4 RegionaIStructuralAnalysis......... 75
2.2 Imagery Enhancement Techniques .......... 37
3.4.5 Reactivated Structures and
2.2.1 Contrast Stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37
Superimposed Styles. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75
2.2.2 Standard False-Color Imagery ....... 38
3.4.6 Word of Caution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79
2.2.3 Intensity. Hue and Saturation
3.5 Sununary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79
Transformations ....... . . . . . . . . . .. 41
References and Further Reading ............... 80
2.2.4 Ratio Enhancement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 43
_1ii1fi1';·II'L_ ___________________ _
x
Chapter 4 Image Interpretation Techniques: Chapter 6 Interpretation Techniques:
Obscured and Buried Structures ................ " 83 Structural Mapping with Stereo Data . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143
4.1 Introduction............................ 83 6.1 Introduction ............................ 143
4.1.1 Mechanisms of Surface Expression. . .. 83 6.2 Principles of Stereo ...................... 143
4.2 Analysis Criteria ........................ 86 6.2.1 Concepts of Visual Depth Perception . .. 143
4.2.1 Structurally Controlled Streams ...... 86 6.2.2 Concepts of Simulated Depth
4.2.2 Structurally Controlled Streams Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 144
Related to Piping and Sapping . . . . . . .. 90 6.2.3 Common Stereoscopic Distortions . . . .. 144
4.2.3 Brightness and Spectral Variations .... 96 6.2.3.1 Vertical Exaggeration .............. 144
4.2.4 Classification and Analysis of 6.2.3.2 Pseudoscopic lllusions .............. 145
Lineaments and Linear Features .... " 102 6.3 Principles for Geological Mapping
4.2.4.1 LineamentAnalysis .............. " 102 with Stereo Data ........................ 146
4.2.4.2 Analysis of Une ar Features. . . . . . . . .. 105 6.3.1 The Floating Dot Principle and
4.3 Reconstruction Techniques ................ 107 Parallax Bars .................... 146
4.3.1 Topographic Models of Obscured 6.3.2 Quantitative Measurements of Dips
and Buried Folded Strata ........... 107 and Strikes ...................... 147
4.3.2 Geomorphic Investigation of Do mal 6.3.3 Creating a Form-Une Surface
Topography .................... '. 109 Structure (FSS) Map ............... 147
4.3.3 Subsurface Reconstruction of Do mal 6.4 Tools for Geological Mapping with Stereo Data . 149
Topography ...................... 109 6.4.1 Stereo Pair Alignment .............. 149
4.4 Summary .............. ' ............... 112 6.4.2 Simple Optical Stereoscopes ......... 149
References and Further Reading ............... 112 6.4.3 Complex and Analytical Stereoscopes .. 150
6.4.4 Digital Image Correlation ........... 151
Chapter 5 Interpretation Techniques: 6.5 Evaluation of Different Stereo Data .......... 153
Detection and Analysis of Basement Warp Structures 115 6.5.1 SPOT vs. High-Altitude Photography
5.1 Introduction ............................ 115 in Low Relief Areas ................ 153
5.2 Previous Studies ........................ 115 6.5.2 SPOT vs. Field Data in Highly
5.3 Principles ofIntegrating Reconnaissance DeformedAreas .................. 159
DataSets ............................. 116 6.6 Exploration Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161
5.4 Classification of Basement Structures ........ 118 6.7 Selecting Stereo Data for Structural Mapping .. 165
5.4.1 Exposed Basement Structures. . . . . . .. 118 6.8 Incorporating Stereo Capabilities ........... 167
5.4.1.1 First-Order Basement Structures ..... 118 6.9 Summary .............................. 167
5.4.1.2 Second-Order Basement Structures ... 118 References and Further Reading ............... 168
5.4.1.3 Third-Order Basement Structures. . . .. 122
5.4.2 Basement Warp Structures Chapter 7 Structural Analysis of Sedimentary Basins .. 171
(Buried and Obscured) ............. 122 7.1 Introduction............................ 171
5.4.2.1 First-Order Basement Warp Structures. 122 7.2 Approach .............................. 171
5.4.2.2 Second-Order Basement Warp 7.3 Analysis of Fractured Reservoir Trends in the
Structures ....................... 123 Swiss Molasse Basin ..................... 172
5.4.2.3 Third-Order Basement Warp Structures 123 7.3.1 Objectives ....................... 172
5.5 Diagnostic Surface Features of Basement 7.3.2 Approach ....................... 173
Warp Structures ........................ 124 7.3.3 Geological Settings of the Molasse
5.5.1 Subsequent Incised Valleys .......... 125 Basin ........................... 173
5.5.2 Transverse Incised Valleys .......... 126 7.3.4 Exploration in the Swiss Molasse . . . . .. 178
5.5.3 Cuesta Topography .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 129 7.3.5 Regional Analysis of Satellite
5.6 Specialized Interpretation Tools ............ 129 Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 179
5.6.1 Structurally Controlled Incised Valleys 7.3.6 Analysis of the Basin's Margins ....... 180
in the Belle Fourche Arch Area, 7.4 Basin Interior .......................... 180
Powder River Basin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131 7.4.1 Subsurface Data .................. 181
5.6.1.1 Introduction ..................... 131 7.4.2 Swiss Molasse Play Concept. . . . . . . . .. 181
5.6.1.2 Surface and Subsurface Expressions 7.4.3 Prospective Leads from the Swiss
of the Belle Fourche Arch ........... 131 Molasse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 183
5.6.1.3 Geological Model of the Belle 7.5 Detection of Buried Triassic Basins in the
Fourche Arch .................... 136 Coastal Plains of the Eastern United States .... 184
5.6.1.4 ExplorationApplication ............ 137 7.5.1 Objectives ....................... 184
5.7 Summary ............................ '. 138 7.5.2 Geological Setting of the Mesozoic
References and Further Reading ............... 140 Basins .......................... 184
7.5.3 Satellite Imagery Interpretation ...... 188
7.5.4 Regional Gravity and Magnetic Data Chapter 12 The Canadian Foreland Fold and Thrust Belt,
Interpretation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190 Northern British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 249
7.6 Detailed Analysis of Known Buried Basins .... 191 12.1 Background ........................... 249
7.6.1 Geological/Geophysical Model of 12.2 Objectives ............................ 249
Buried Triassic Basins ........... 193 12.3 Training Instructions .................... 249
7.6.2 Structural Lead Map ............. 193 12.3.1 Interpretation Procedures .......... 249
7.6.3 Conclusions and Recommendations . 194 12.3.2 Questions ....................... 250
7.7 Summary ............................. 196 References and Further Reading ............... 250
References and Further Reading ............... 196
Chapter 13 The Paris Basin, France ............... 263
Chapter 8 Other Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 199 13.1 Background ........................... 263
8.1 Introduction .......................... 199 13.2 Objectives ............................ 263
8.2 Principles of Direct Detection of Hydrocarbons 199 13.3 Training Instructions .................... 263
8.2.1 Prototype Example - The Velma Field, 13.3.1 InterpretationProcedures .......... 263
Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 199 13.3.2 Questions ....................... 263
8.2.1.1 Background Information ......... 199 References and Further Reading ............... 264
8.2.1.2 Surface Manifestations ........... 202
8.2.1.3 Imagery ...................... 202 Chapter 14 The EastTexas Region ................ 277
8.2.2 Other Related Studies ............ 204 14.1 Background ........................... 277
8.2.2.1 Conclusions ................... 204 14.2 Objectives ............................ 277
8.3 Outcrop Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 204 14.3 TrainingInstructions .................... 277
8.4 Logistical and Environmental Applications ... 207 14.3.1 Interpretation Procedures .......... 277
8.5 Summary ............................. 209 14.3.2 Questions ....................... 277
References and Further Reading ............... 209 References and Further Reading ............... 278
Closing Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 211
Appendices
Part 2 Additional Examples of Remote Sensing
A. List of Symbols Used in the Interpretation
Interpretation and Integration
of Imagery Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 295
Introduction ................................ 215
B. Abbreviations Used on Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 296
Chapter 9 The Salt Flat Graben, West Texas . . . . . . . .. 217
C. Drainage Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 297
9.1 Background ........................... 217
9.2 Objectives ............................ 217
9.3 Training Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 217 D. Major Sources of Images .................... 301
9.3.1 Interpretation Procedures ........ 217
9.3.2 Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 217 Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 307
References and Further Reading ............... 218
Location Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 313
Chapter 10 Death Valley Region,
Nevada and California ........................ 225 Subjectlndex .............................. 315
10.1 Background ........................... 225
10.2 Objectives ............................ 225
10.3 TrainingInstructions .................... 225
10.3.1 InterpretationProcedures ........ 225
10.3.2 Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 225
References and Further Reading ............... 226
Chapter 11 The Fort St. John Graben,
Western Canada ............................. 239
11.1 Background ........................... 239
11.2 Objectives ............................ 239
11.3 TrainingInstructions .................... 239
11.3.1 Interpretation Procedures ........ 239
11.3.2 Questions ..................... 239
References and Further Reading ............... 240
Part 1
Fundamentals of Remote
Sensing Technology,
Interpretation and Integration