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Saltmarsh Conservation, Management and Restoration Coastal Systems and Continental Margins VOLUME 12 Series Editor Bilal U. Haq Editorial Advisory Board M. Collins, Dept. of Oceanography, University of Southampton, U.K. D. Eisma, Emeritus Professor, Utrecht University and Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Texel, The Netherlands K.E. Louden, Dept. of Oceanography, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada J.D. Milliman, School of Marine Science, The College of William & Mary, Gloucester Point, VA, U.S.A. H.W. Posamentier, Anadarko Canada Corporation, Calgary, AB, Canada A. Watts, Dept. of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, U.K. The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume. Saltmarsh Conservation, Management and Restoration By J. Patrick Doody National Coastal Consultants, Brampton, UK J. Patrick Doody National Coastal Consultants Brampton UK Series Editor: Bilal V. Haq Bethesda MD USA Cover illustrations Left: Salicoria europaea. Top right: Dissected, grazed upper saltmarsh in Devon. Bottom right: Salt pan. Photographs taken by J. Patrick Doody. ISBN 978-1-4020-4603-2 eISBN 978-1-4020-5748-9 Library of Congress Control Number : 2007933718 © 2008 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfi lming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifi cally for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed on acid-free paper. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com This book is dedicated to my wife who on some of our trips could be heard to say ‘oh not another saltmarsh’. Despite this, we are still together after more than 30 years. Perhaps saltmarshes have a little extra after all! Contents Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix 1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Sediments and Sedimentary Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.3 Saltmarsh Vegetation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.3.1 Tides and Transitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3.2 Succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.3.3 The Nature of the Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.4 An Ecosystem Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.4.1 Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.4.2 Internal and External Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.5 Geographical Location and Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2. Human Infl uences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.2 Traditional Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.1.1 Grazing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.1.2 Reed Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.1.3 Samphire Gathering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.1.4 Saltmarsh ‘Haying’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.2 Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.2.1 Turf Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.2.2 Sediment Extraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.3 Summer Dykes, Grazing Marsh, Salinas and Rice Fields . . . . . . . . 20 2.3.1 Summer Dykes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.3.2 Grazing Marsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.3.3 Salinas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.3.4 Rice Cultivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 vii viii Contents 2.4 Enclosure and Habitat Loss – ‘Land Claim’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.4.1 Saltmarshes, Other Coastal Wetlands and Mosquitoes . . . . . 25 2.4.2 Enclosure and Drainage of Coastal Wetlands for Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.4.3 ‘Warping’ and Sediment Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.4.4 Enclosure for Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.4.5 Summary of Enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.5 Other Infl uences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3. Nature Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.2 The USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.3 The Changing Scene in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.4 Habitat Loss and Nature Conservation in the UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.4.1 Saltmarsh Enclosure in the Wash, South-East England. . . . . 36 3.4.2 Erosion of Essex Saltmarsh, South-East England . . . . . . . . . 38 3.4.3 Cardiff Bay, South Wales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.5 From Enclosure to Enlightenment and Realignment. . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.5.1 ‘Protecting’ Essex Saltmarsh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.5.2 The UK ‘Saltmarsh Squeeze’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.5.3 Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.6 The Rest of Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.6.1 Europe – ICZM, Erosion and All That . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.6.2 Accommodating Change – ‘Living with the Sea’ . . . . . . . . . 46 4. States and Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 4.1.1 Driving Forces, Pressures, States, Impacts and Response (DPSIR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 4.2 Physical States – Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 4.2.1 State 1 – Accreting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 4.2.2 State 2 – Semi-Stable (Dynamic Equilibrium) . . . . . . . . . . . 52 4.2.3 State 3 – Eroding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 4.3 Physical States – Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 4.3.1 Ecosystem Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 4.3.2 Economic Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 4.3.3 Cultural Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 4.4 Vegetative States – Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 4.4.1 State 1 – Heavily Grazed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 4.4.2 State 2 – Moderately Grazed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4.4.3 State 3 – Historically Ungrazed/Lightly Grazed . . . . . . . . . . 66 4.4.4 State 4 – Abandoned, Formerly Grazed .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 4.4.5 State 5 – Overgrazed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 4.5 Vegetation States – Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 4.5.1 Nature Conservation Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Contents ix 5. The Physical States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 5.2 Physical Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 5.2.1 Processes Infl uencing the Physical State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 5.3 Values Associated with the Physical State of the Saltmarsh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 5.3.1 State 1 – Accreting Saltmarsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 5.3.2 State 2 – Dynamically Stable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 5.3.3 State 3 – Eroding Saltmarsh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 5.4 Summary – A Physical Model for Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 5.4.1 Rates of Accretion and Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 5.5 Monitoring is an Essential Tool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 5.6 Assessing the Need for Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 5.6.1 Accreting – State 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 5.6.2 Dynamic Equilibrium – State 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 5.6.3 Eroding – State 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 5.7 Approaches to Restoration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 5.7.1 Moving Seaward, Creating New Saltmarsh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 5.7.2 Protecting and Restoring Saltmarsh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 5.7.3 Moving Landward, Re-integration and Habitat Creation . . . 89 6. Physical States, Restoration Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 6.2 Restoring Eroding (State 3) Saltmarsh, Moving Seaward or ‘Staying Put’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 6.2.1 Warping, Poldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 6.2.2 Bay Bottom Terracing in the USA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 6.2.3 Use of Dredged Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 6.2.4 Reseeding and Other Vegetation Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 6.2.5 Planting Cord Grass Spartina spp. in the USA . . . . . . . . . . . 94 6.2.6 Offshore Breakwaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 6.2.7 Rip-Rap, Protecting the Eroding Edge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 6.2.8 Setbacks to Planting Native Spartina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 6.3 Restoring Saltmarsh – Moving Landward: ‘Re-integration with the Sea’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 6.3.1 Restoring Tidally Restricted Saltmarshes in the USA. . . . . . 98 6.3.2 The German Baltic Coast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 6.4 Re-creating Saltmarsh from Agricultural Land in England, ‘Abandonment’ or ‘Managed Realignment’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 6.4.1 Abandonment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 6.4.2 Realignment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 6.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 x Contents 7. Vegetation States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 7.2 Mechanisms for Change – Native Species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 7.2.1 Native Waterfowl in Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 7.2.2 Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 7.2.3 Introduced Nutria in North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 7.2.4 Snails and Other Invertebrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 7.3 Mechanisms for Change – Grazing by Domestic Livestock . . . . . . . 112 7.3.1 Changes in Plant Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 7.3.2 Changes in Rare Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 7.3.3 Grazing and Breeding Birds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 7.3.4 Grazing by Domestic Stock, Effects on Avian Herbivores . . 117 7.3.5 Grazing and Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 7.3.6 Grazing and Sea Bass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 7.4 Lesser Snow Geese (Chen caerulescens caerulescens) – A Conservation Dilemma?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 7.4.1 A Population Explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 7.4.2 Grazing Impacts on Saltmarsh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 7.4.3 Controlling Goose Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 7.5 Changing Biological Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 7.6 ‘Grazing’ State Evaluation Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 7.6.1 Effecting Vegetative Change – A State Evaluation Model . . 125 8. Grazing Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 8.2 Assessing the Need for Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 8.2.1 Historical Understanding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 8.2.2 Protecting Nature Conservation Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 8.2.3 Assessing the Implications of Grazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 8.2.4 Grazing Management in North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 8.3 Managing Grazing Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 8.3.1 Maintaining Ungrazed/Lightly Grazed ‘Natural’ Saltmarsh (State 3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 8.3.2 Maintaining Moderately Grazed Saltmarsh (State 2) . . . . . . 132 8.3.3 Maintaining Heavily Grazed Saltmarsh (State 1) . . . . . . . . . 133 8.4 Modifying Saltmarsh Vegetation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 8.4.1 Historically Ungrazed or Lightly Grazed (State 3) and Moderately Grazed (State 2) Saltmarsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 8.4.2 Reducing Grazing Pressure – Heavily Grazed (State 1) Saltmarsh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 8.4.3 Restoring Grazing on Abandoned (State 4) Saltmarshes. . . . 135 8.4.4 Mowing as a Management Tool on Abandoned Saltmarshes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 8.4.5 Restoring ‘Overgrazed’ Saltmarsh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 8.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Contents xi 9. Spartina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 9.1.1 The Nature of Colonisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 9.1.2 Hybridisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 9.1.3 Pattern of Invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 9.1.4 Rates of Sedimentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 9.2 World Domination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 9.2.1 World Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 9.2.2 Spread in China, Australia and New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . 145 9.2.3 USA, Washington State and San Francisco Bay . . . . . . . . 146 9.3 Changing Perceptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 9.3.1 Impacts on Bird Populations in the UK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 9.3.2 Impacts on Amenity Beaches, North-West England . . . . . 148 9.3.3 Problems in the USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 9.3.4 Studies Elsewhere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 9.4 Methods of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 9.4.1 Herbicides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 9.4.2 Physical/Mechanical Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 9.4.3 Grazing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 9.4.4 Biological Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 9.4.5 Summary of Control Measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 9.5 Spartina spp. Friend or Foe? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 9.5.1 Control – Concerns and Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 9.5.2 ‘Natural Die Back’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 9.5.3 Changing Patterns of Invasion – Great Britain. . . . . . . . . . 157 9.5.4 Spartina in North-West England, a Case of Succession . . 158 9.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 9.6.1 Spartina anglica – A Natural Component of Saltmarshes in the UK and Ireland?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 9.6.2 Friend or Foe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 10. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 10.2 Time and Tide Wait for No One. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 10.2.1 Can Saltmarshes Keep Pace with Sea-Level Rise? . . . . . 167 10.3 Saltmarshes and Saltmarsh Restoration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 10.4 Southern North Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 10.4.1 Will it All Come Out in the Wash?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 10.4.2 Realignment in Belgium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 10.4.3 The Wadden Sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 10.5 Restoration in North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 10.5.1 The State of Louisiana and the Mississippi Delta . . . . . . 174 10.5.2 San Francisco Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 10.5.3 Restoration in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

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