Rye: Production, Chemistry, and Technology

97 Pages·1976·19.508 MB·English

by  Ed. Walter Bushuk

m7E:
Production, Chemistry, and Technology
Edited by Dr. Walter Bushuk Department of Plant Science,
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Published by the
American Association of Cereal Chemists, Incorporated
St. Paul, Minnesota
Copyright © 1976 by the PREFACE
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF CEREAL CHEMISTS, INC.
St. Paul, Minnesota
The awareness of the need for an all-inclusive publication on rye arose when I
could not find the information needed to answer an inquiry regarding milling and
baking quality assessment of this grain. A proposal that the AACC should
publish a monograph on rye was made to the Committee on Publications
through its Chairman, Professor Paul Mattern, Department of Agronomy,
University of Nebraska. The proposal was unanimously approved.
All rights reserved. No part of this
book may be reproduced in any It is intended that the book should be useful to the student and scientist
form by photos/at, micro/Um, interested in any aspect of rye. Accordingly, it covers production, breeding,
retrieval system, or any other properties, and processing. For the content of this book, the credit must go to the
means, without written permission
authors of the individual chapters. The authors have given much of their time
ji-om the publishers.
and expert knowledge in the preparation of the manuscripts. It is my view that
their wide range of experience adds significantly to the value of the book.
In editing the monograph, I have attempted to achieve some uniformity
among chapters and to eliminate obvious duplication without completely
destroying the individuality of the authors with widely varying backgrounds and
interests. I commend their excellent cooperation and willingness to take their
manuscripts through several revisions.
The editorial assistance of my colleagues Dr. C. C. Bernier, Dr. F. W. Hougen,
Dr. J. P. Gustafson, Dr. L. J. LaCroix and Mr. I. Levi is gratefully
acknowledged. I sincerely acknowledge the excellent support and cooperation
LIBRARY OF CONG RESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 76-029382 that I received from Mr. R. J. Tarleton, Executive Vice President, AACC, and
Ms. J. F. Sorensen, the technical editor of this monograph. Finally. my sincere
ISBN 0-913250-11-2 thanks go to Mrs. Sylvia Kusmider for her typing services.
Printed in the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Walter Bushuk
CONTENTS
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF
CEREAL CHEMISTS, INC.
PAGE
CHAPTER
1. History. World Distribution. Production. and Marketing. By W. BUSHUK
I. Introduction ......................................................... .
II. Origin and History ................................................... .
Ill. Classification ........................................................ . 3
Volume V
IV. Area, Yield. and Quantity of World Production .......................... . 3
Monograph Series
V. Uses. Merits. and Deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
VI. International Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
CONTRIBUTORS 2. Cytogenetics, Plant Breeding. and Agronomy. By L. E. EVANS and G. J. SCOLES . . 13
I. Cytogenetics ......................................................... . 13
W. Bushuk, Department of Plant Science, The University of Manitoba,
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada I I. Genetics ....................................................... • ... • • • 16
W. P. Campbell, C.S.l.R.O. Wheat Research Unit, North Ryde, A. Growth Habit-B. Winter Versus Spring Habit-C. EarCharacteristics-D.
Anthocyanin Pigmentation-E. Incompatibility and Self-Fertility-F.
Australia Chlorophyll Deficiencies-G. Dwarfing-H. Protein Content and Amino
E. Drews, Federal Research Institute of Cereal and Potatoe Processing, Acid Composition-I. Other Characters-.!. Cytoplasm Effects
Detmold, Federal Republic of Germany Ill. Plant Breeding ....................................................... . 20
L. E. Evans, Department of Plant Science, The University of Manitoba,
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada IV. Agronomy ........................................................... . 22
T. A. Rozsa, 353 W. Broadway, Winona, Minnesota
3. Diseases. Pests. and Physiology of Rye. By STANISLAW STARZYCKI 27
G. J. Scoles, Department of Plant Science, The University of Manitoba,
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Part One: Diseases and Pests
W. Seibel, Federal Research Institute of Cereal and Potatoe Processing,
I. Diseases Ca used by Fungi ............................................. . 27
Detmold, Federal Republic of Germany A. Diseases Caused by Ascomycetes-B. Diseases Caused by
D. H. Simmonds, C.S.I.R.O. Wheat Research Unit, North Ryde, Basidiomycetes-C. Diseases Caused by Deuteromycetes (Fungi lmperfecti)
Australia
I I. Diseases Ca used by Viruses ............................................ . 38
Stanislaw Starzycki, Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute, A. Barley Yellow Dwarf-B. Wheat Dwarf-C. Soil-Borne Mosaic--D. Oat
Radzikow, Poland Blue Dwarf
Ill. Diseases Caused by Nematodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
A. Dit_rlenchus dipsaci Kuhn-B. Anguina tritici (Steinbuch)--C. Heterodera
avenae
IV. Other Rye Pests ...................................................... . 41 6. Bread Baking and Other Uses Around the World. By E. DREWS and W. SEIBEL 127
A. Pests Which Cause Major Damage-B. Pests Which Cause Moderate
Damage-C. Pests Which May Cause Damage to Rye I. Introduction ...................................................... • -. • 127
A. General-B. Grading of Rye and Baking Strength
Part Two: Physiology
II. Tests For Milling and Baking Quality of Rye ........................... -• 13 l
I. Some Elements of Rye Photosynthesis 44 A. Tests Made on Grain (External Factors)-B. Assessment of Grain
(Internal Factors)-C. Assessment of Flour and Mcal-D. Quality Tests on
II. Reaction to Drought .................... ,· ............................. . 47 Dough-E. Standard Baking Tests and Assessment of Bread Quality
III. Nutrition of the Rye Plant ............................................. . 47 III. Rye and Mixed Rye-Wheat Bread ................................. _. .... . 164
A. Phosphorus-B. Potassium-C. Cc;ipper A. Commercial Production-B. Shelf-Life and Mold Prevent1on-C.
Packaging and Storage-D. Nutritional Value
IV. Growth and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
IV. Rye Bread and Baked Products Around the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
V. Effect of Adverse Environmental Factors ................................ . 54 A. North America-B. Europe
VI. Biology of Seeds ..................................................... . 55 V. Other Uses of Rye Around the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
A. Germination-B. Vernalization-C. Autumn Growth and A. Animal Feed-B. Alcoholic Fermentation-C. Other Uses
Development-D. Fertility
4. Morphology and Chemistry of the Rye Grain. By D. H. SIMMONDS and W. P.
CAMPBELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
I. General Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
A. The Rye lnflorescence-B. Flowering
II. Kernel Structure and Developmental Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
A. The Mature Grain-B. The Developing Grain
III. General Composition of the Mature Rye Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
A. Proximate Analysis-B. Minerals-C. Vitamins and Anti-Nutritional
Factors-D. Amino Acids-E. Fatty Acids-F. Comparison of the
Composition of Whole Rye Grain with that of Rye Bran and Flour
IV. Protein Composition of the Mature Rye Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
A. Protein Distribution in the Kernel-B. Extraction. Fractionation, and
Properties of Rye Endosperm Proteins-C. Enzymatic Activities in the Rye
Kernel
V. Starch Composition of the Mature Rye Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 00
VI. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 04
VII. Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 05
5. Rye Milling. By T. A. ROZSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I
I. Historical Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I
I I. Properties of Rye Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I
Ill. Rye Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
A. Rye Milling in North America-B. Rye Milling in Western Europe-C. Rye
Milling in Eastern Europe and in the U.S.S.R.
IV. Air Classification of Rye Flour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
V. Potentials for Rye Flours .................... : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
R_YE:
Production, Chemistry, and Technology
CHAPTER 1
HISTORY, WORLD DISTRIBUTION,
PRODUCTION, AND MARKETING
W. BUSHUK
Department of Plant Science
The University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
I. INTRODUCTION
Rye (Secale cereale L.) is second only to wheat as the grain used most
commonly for the production of bread. Because of the extreme hardiness of the
rye plant and its ability to grow in sandy soils oflow fertility, rye can be grown in
areas that are generally not suitable for growing other cereal grains. Greatest
production is in the cool temperate zones of the world, but it can also grow in the
semiarid regions near deserts and at high altitudes. It enjoys the widest
distribution of all the cereal crops.
II. ORIGIN AND HISTORY
The primary center of origin of rye appears to be southwestern Asia,
essentially the same as the area of origin of wheat, oats, and barley (Deodikar,
1963). Rye is not as old as wheat. There is no trace of cultivated rye in ancient
Egyptian monuments nor is it mentioned in any of the ancient writings. It is
mentioned in early northern European writings which suggests that it was first
cultivated in this area. Grains found in the Neolithic sites of Austria and Poland
are considered to be of "wild" origin.
Rye moved from its center of origin to northern Europe sometime during the
first millenium B. C. The exact route of this migration is not known. One possible
route is from Asia Minor northwards into Russia and then westwards into
Poland and Germany (Scheibe, 1935; Kuckuck, 1937). According to Popov
(1939), a second possible route of migration is from Turkey into Europe across
the Balkan Peninsula. From there, northern European rye gradually spread
throughout most of Europe and was eventually brought to North America and
western South America with the settling of these areas by Europeans in the 16th
and 17th centuries. During this period, it gradually spread across the southern
2 / Rye: Production, Chemistry, and Technology History, World Distribution, Production, and Marketing I 3
fringe of U.S.S.R. into Siberia. In the 19th and 20th centuries it was introduced
to Argentina, southern Brazil, Uruguay, Australia, and South Africa. Figure I
shows the areas in the world where rye is grown.
·~
•o "2
~
III. CLASSIFICATION
·~ /
Rye is a member of the grass family and is subclassified into the genus Secale.
Only one species of rye, Secale (S.) cereale L., is extensively cultivated.
C') According to Carleton (1919), Hackel divided rye into two species, Secale (S.)
-D
°'
fragile Bieberst and S. cereale L. S. fragile is grown to a limited extent in
.s·
southwestern Asia. The wild progenitor of S. cereale has not been definitely
t:
el identified although some taxonomists believed that it evolved from Secale
::E
montanum Gus., a perennial that grows wild in southern Europe and central
"O
::J
el Asia.
".O... Most of the cultivated rye is of the type with seven pairs of somatic
el
0::J chromosomes. An artificially produced tetraploid type with 14 pairs of
~ chromosomes is grown to a limited extent in Europe.
" The number of different varieties of rye grown around the world is relatively
,b,JJ
el low, especially when compared with wheat. Considerably less effort has been
;e<,l.-l) expended in the improvement and development of rye varieties than of most
00 other cereal grains. Because rye is a cross-pollinated crop, it is extremely difficult
't
'-1D" to keep rye varieties pure.
~ Most of the rye is grown as a fall-sown annual. This is generally called winter
0")' rye. Because of its superior winter hardiness, winter rye can be grown successfully
..c::
cl in areas where the climate is too severe for winter wheat. Some spring rye is
,D grown in areas where the winters are too severe for winter rye production. The
::J
;.§ spring varieties are generally inferior in agronomic and end use qualities.
'§
:<:lJ.) IV. AREA, YIELD, AND QUANTITY OF WORLD PRODUCTION
0
i":i' The area of cultivated land of the world devoted to the growing of rye (F AO,
~
.<.l...) 1972) has decreased substantially over the past decade (Figure 2). In 1961, 28.5
0.
.<.l...) million hectares were harvested; by 1972 this figure had decreased to 17.5 million
+0- ' hectares, a drop of 35%. During the same period, total production decreased
"O
from 35 million to about 31 million metric tons, a drop of only about 11 %. The
..c::
eul substantial decrease in area was largely offset by the marked increase in yield.
'1-l
Yields in the early 1960's were as low as 11. 5 centals per hectare. After 1964,
ci
0 yields increased continuously, reaching the highest recorded figure of almost 17
''§
centals per hectare in 1971-an increase of about 48%. This substantial increase
,D
-~ was achieved through improvement of agronomic practices, especially in the use
;a
of chemical fertilizers and crop rotation, and through improvement of varieties
;.<.,l..-.) , and elimination of the use of low-fertility land.
.":O: Relative to other major cereal crops, rye was in eighth position over the past
~ ~ 0 decade (Table I). Its production was about one-tenth that of the three major
":, "o ~ crops-wheat, rice, and maize.
,....;
Rye is a particularly important crop in the U.S.S.R., Poland, and Germany
.<.l...)
::J (Table II). Approximately one-third of the world production was in the U .S.S.R.
ub:J:J
in 1972. A slightly lower proportion was produced in Poland where rye is the
4 I Rye: Production, Chemistry, and Technology History, World Distribution, Production, and Marketing I 5
leading cereal crop; it exceeded wheat by nearly 60%. In the German Federal
Republic rye formed as much as 31 % of the combined rye and wheat production.
The equivalent figure for the German Democratic Republic was 41 %; and for
Austria, where the production of rye and wheat is quite small, the figure was 32%.
RyIen oscpcituep ioefs wanor ilmd pfooortda nsht oerctoangoesm, iict ips onsoitti oenn viins amgeadn yth oatth reyre c poruondtruicetsi.o n will °Nr- '- "r'0°- '-· .rr",---,-' °N" '' ""0.N,0 ',' °."",!','. '".°°,,'' '°r0°- '- r00-00-
7 °' 0 7 7 N
increase in the future. Because of the hardine~s of the plant, however, interest in "' N "'
the crop will probably remain high, and it should continue to be an important
crop. °r-'- ."NNo,o ', . °°'o°''. '"N° '· '.77°, ,. .""rr-,-..,''-'. ' "."r,-'-,' °..07,, ',, '°"°''·
0 0 7 M
V. USES, MERITS, AND DEFICIENCIES "' M "'
.,,
feeTdh, ea nryde acsr oap ghraese nm panlayn ut sfeosr. Ilitv ies sutosecdk apsa fsltouurer .f or bread, as grain for livestock °r0- '- r7M0-0 -. 'rr00°-- 0-- . '"°' .."~,,',, ...r~,,,-,,,- 'r7°- -· '077~° 0 NNrNr--. .-'.'
M M N
Of the cereal grains, only wheat and rye produce flours that can be used for the
paitlrsoo nddeou uctogti hop nrl aoocdfku lsce eae vltaehsnetei cdsio tb-ycr eaaalnlded.d gRbaylsae c rikes tibennrfeteiarodino urp streood pw eehrxtetieaents s.i invR ebylryee aifndlo meuaars ktcieanrngn qbEeuu aruloistpeyde; ~~°-..._' °°'°'' °0V "') °.7M0,0 ,', ''0r-°° ..'. ' N.Mro,- ,-. °0"..,,0',,' 'NM7~° 'r7V°- "- ) °.NN",! ,'.
<2, M N N
and parts of Asia. In many countries, a lighter rye loaf is produced from mixtures
of rye and wheat flours. The characteristic flavor of rye is liked by many people, ~:::: .,, °' 00 °' N 00 ..,,,,
.2;.:._: °'0°0' "7 !. Nr7- -. .N0r,- -,. o7 . '.M~°, , °'0°0'· "77 ' "M '
;:; "M ' 0N0 N "' M 7 M
!::
30
- :2 .,, .,, .,,
<DIQ 26 r.i<P.:-.l..!'1.I l~:at.:2:: :, °'r°-'- °°00N00' '· N0rr70--00 --, ''rNM0°°-0 - 'N0~° .0N0,0 , "r07- -' 7.r~,- ,- '7M0° ,
" '-'
(CwIuf<w /l-')! . 22 AREA HARVESTED -C"..C26..__'l-l . '°'°°' "r00- -' N0.No7, o0 ,. ".N7N7, ,' NNrr--. .-'.' 0..07,, 00,, M7.~, , r"N~- -' M0r00-0 0-
18
'-'
'ii
w 17 ::".".'..:-__i''' °'.°,', ''°Mr-°°. .''. ' ''.r°°,-,-· Nr07-. 0 .'.' '"N00° ' '''"7°°° ' '0Mr7°- 0- °'Mrr°-- '--· .MM7V, ",)
Cl'. N N N
~ ~
Iu(w_.. /.J. ). 15 YIELD °'7° ' °r0- ..''. ' ."00,'00,· °."0, '',· ~"0 ' :M~:! : .M0, , '.MV°, ", ) ..Nr,,-,,-.
~z 13 rN- - 'N° ;:::; 2 7 7 "' M
w
u
<IDQ ;t °'M° ' °."N0,'0 ',. °..NN",,! ,',. '°NN°' · 'No0° o . "r707- 0-' rrM7o-- o --. -..Mo,, ,," °"oM7 ''· °:;r::-::'-: ,,
(z"/) <0l' .
fc2 ""
u2fcw2- 19I6P 1R OID UCI TIONI 19I6 6 19I7 1 ;.~:a:c:.:, o<a2..,) ·;@:aN:;.:, .i:">a:!.:l'-, , 0-"~ ' 2~-'j .V;.80bc.:J.:J .,J i:>a,.:-, , ;f";<.0.:..:l .),
YEAR
Figure 2. World rye crop area harvested, yield and production.
6 / Rye: Production, Chemistry, and Technology History, World Distribution, Production, and Marketing / 7
especially those of eastern Europe. Small quantities of rye flour are used for the alternative crop. It is a good rotational crop because of its ability to combat
production of baked specialty products such as flat bread or rye crisp. weeds. In some countries, it is used as a pioneer crop to improve wasteland and
Although used extensively as livestock feed, rye is relatively low on the scale of sterile soils. In Argentina, it is an important pasture crop; and in southern
quality of feed grains. It tends to form a sticky mass in the animals' mouths and Australia, it is planted to prevent wind erosion. Its many uses and advantages far
can be extremely unpalatable if ergot is present. It is generally used in a mixture outweigh its deficiencies.
with other grains. On occasion, the price of rye is such that it becomes an
attractive feed grain in spite of its low feed ,value. VI. INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Substantial quantities of rye grain are used for the production of alcoholic
beverages. During the last decade, world trade in rye showed a sharp drop from 1963 to
Rye is used extensively as a pasture crop: It can be pastured both in the autumn 1964, followed by relatively small fluctuations after 1964 to 1972 (Figure 3,
and spring or only in the autumn and cropped in the spring. Occasionally it is Tables III and IV). In 1972, 2.3% of the total world production was exported.
grazed in the autumn and used as spring cover crop or ploughed under as green This is a substantial decrease from 5%, the equivalent figure for 1963. Domestic
manure for a crop of higher economic value. consumption of rye is greatest in countries where the crop has been traditionally
Rye straw is fibrous and tough and therefore not used extensively in livestock grown. Only one major nonproducing country, Japan, has become a major
feed. It is highly desirable, however, for livestock bedding. Small quantities of consumer of rye.
straw are used in the manufacture of strawboard and paper. The five major exporters (Table III) in the last decade were U.S.S.R., Canada,
In spite of its many deficiencies, rye will continue to be an important crop U.S.A., the German Federal Republic and Sweden. The German Federal
because it has a number of advantages over other crops. It is considerably more Republic was a major exporter of rye in 1971 and 1972, second only to Canada.
winter hardy than wheat and will give economical yields on poor sandy soils The U.S.S.R., a major exporter ofrye for many years, did not export any in 1972
where no other useful crop can grow. It is grown in many areas that have no because of domestic shortages of food and feed grains.
Over the last decade, Japan has gradually become the largest importer of rye
(Table IV). Most of this grain in Japan has been used by the animal feed industry;
TABLE II
Rye and wheat production by countries for 1972' this arose mainly from a price advantage that rye has had in the I 960's over feed
grains. Substantial quantities go into the baking industry; rye bread is gaining in
1000 Metric Tons
popularity in Japan. The other importers in decreasing order of importance are
Rye Wheat
Czechoslovakia, the German Federal Republic, Poland, the German
U.S.S.R. 9,600 85,800
Democratic Republic, and The Netherlands. All but the last-named country are
also major producers of rye and are highly dependent on the crop for bread
Poland 8,149 5,147
purposes. This need cannot be easily filled by wheat or other cereals because of
Germany FED 2,914 6,608 traditional food preferences and economic reasons. During years of
Germany DR 1,900 2,744
2.0
U.S.A. 750 42,043
Turkey 740 12,085
1.5
Argentina 690 8,100 "'
'g
"
Czechoslovakia 450 4,220
zCf )
f2 1.0
Austria 402 863
0
ii:
Sweden 363 1,150 Lfu-
2
0.5
Canada 344 14,514
France 331 18,123
All Others 1,545 146,206 1963 '65 '67 '69 '71
YEAR
World 28,178 347,603
'Source: FAO (1972). Figure 3. World rye exports.