russian apartment buildings

200 Pages·2007·21.99 MB·English

POTENTIAL SPACE-HEATING ENERGY EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS IN
DISTRICT-HEATED RUSSIAN APARTMENT BUILDINGS
by
Michael W. Opitz
B.S., Mechanical Engineering
University of Oklahoma, 1991
Submitted to the Technology and Policy Program and the Department of Mechanical Engineering
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degrees of
Master of Science in Technology and Policy
and
Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering
at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
May 1994
© 1994 Michael W. Opitz. All rights reserved.
The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly
paper and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in part.
Signature of Author ......... .. vv...-......................... .....................
Certified by ........ ...... .............. r-. . .........................
Leslie K. Nor ford
Associate Professor of Building Technology
Thesis Advisor
Certified by ........................ ... ................. .........
Leon R. Glicksman
Professor of Building Technology and Mechanical Engineering
Thesis Reader
Accepted by........................... : :r../ ...... -.. -
.................. R.i ...
-'".` 'fil(cid:127)ý , hnology and Policy Program
Accepted by.......................................... ........ .........
Ain A. Sonin
Chairman, Mechanical Engineering Departmental Committee on Graduate Students
[ 'MASACHUSE. 'hikSTI
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...A.UG. O,,1 ,.f941

POTENTIAL SPACE-HEATING ENERGY EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS IN
DISTRICT-HEATED RUSSIAN APARTMENT BUILDINGS
by
Michael W. Opitz
Submitted to the Technology and Policy Program and the Department of Mechanical
Engineering in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degrees of Master of Science
in Technology and Policy and Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering
ABSTRACT
Moscow's stock of apartment buildings was analyzed as a case study for assessing potential energy savings
from space-heating energy efficiency improvements in district-heated Russian apartment buildings. The
analysis focused on three key areas: identifying end-use energy savings in a single building, identifying
the corresponding primary fuel savings, and extrapolating savings from a single building to other buildings.
End-use savings were determined by analyzing the results of a Russian field experiment, and by surveying
the characteristics of apartment building thermal envelopes. Primary savings and extrapolated savings were
determined by examining the characteristics of heating equipment in three domains: apartment buildings,
the district-heating distribution system, and central heat stations.
Space-heating energy efficiency in Moscow's buildings was found to be poor compared to apartment
buildings in the US. Improving the control of heat delivered to Russian apartment buildings offers the
largest and most easily achieved energy savings--an estimated 12-14% of seasonal end-use space-heating
energy could be saved in Moscow's apartment buildings by improving heating control systems. Control
improvements are also required in order to save any energy through thermal envelope improvements.
Diversity in Russian apartment buildings and district heating system designs was found to be substantial.
As a result, many district heating systems will be unable to save fuel in response to lower space-heating
energy requirements in buildings because of impediments in either the distribution network or the central
heat stations. Further, extrapolations of end-use savings from a single building to other buildings should
be limited to a narrow group of similar buildings in a single city, and extrapolations of primary fuel savings
from a single building to other buildings should be limited to buildings connected to similar kinds of
district heating systems.
The systemic view--examining system characteristics from the points of energy service back to the points
of primary fuel consumption-is critical in assessing energy savings in Russian apartment buildings.
Future efforts at designing conservation programs in the Russian urban housing sector must also adopt a
systemic view in order to be most effective. Since the best energy-saving strategies are largely defined by
the quality of estimates of energy savings, retrofit cost, and retrofit feasibility, the results of this analysis
could aid in the design of such strategies.
Thesis Advisor: Leslie K. Norford, Associate Professor

To the truth-seekers of the world, who may, from time to time, lose themselves in a
jungle of misleading perceptions, confused motivations, and conflicting values, this
work is dedicated. Don't give up!
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT..,
...........................................................................................................................................................................
.... .................................... ....... ................. ................5......... ................. ................................................................
DEDICATION.
LIST OF FIGURES.............. ................................. ......... ... (cid:127).. (cid:127).............................. ..................................................................
LIST OF TABLES ...............
...........................................................................................................................................
ACKNOWI.ED GEMENTS,
---------------------------------------- ----
............. ....
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .............................
I.... ......... ....................... ................... ..... ......... ............................
Natural Resources, Energy, and Externalitic
..................................................................
Energy Efficiency ............................................
............ ....................................................... .
Energy in the Commonwealth of Independent
S··....................................................................................
Description of Thesis....................... .........
...............................................................................................
CHAPTER IL SOVIET HOUSING AND ENERGY POLICY..................................................................................28
The Soviet Economic Sstem..................................................................................................................................29
Central Planning................... .............................................................. ...2.9.
R esource A llocation ................ .......................................................................................................... 31
D esign N orm s ............................... ........................................................... .............................................. 32
Inc entiveasn d Soviet F......... ........................... .......................................................................... ........................ 32
Incentives and Soviet Firm s................................................................................................................... 33
E on mi c R estructuring.......................................................................... .........................................
Data Problems.....................
.............................................................................................................
The Housing Sector ...............................
Economic Policy...................
................................... ..... .................................. 36
Quality .................................... ....... ....... ..(cid:127)............. ......................... ....................... . (cid:127)..(cid:127)3..9..........
Ownership and Control.........
I...............................................................................................................
The Housing Stock ...............
........................................................ .......................................................... W
The Energy Sector... ............. ............ ...........................................................................................
Energy Supply Problems.......................
Energy Prices ........................................
.............. ..................................................................... .......46
Planned Conservation Efforts ..............
... .......... ....................................................... ...........................
Structure of the Energy Sector ...........
...........................................................................................
Energy Efficiency of the CIS Economy,
,·-· ro · · ·r·N · ·.· · · U ·· · N · · °(cid:127)' (cid:127) -(cid:127)·
···· o····o·························
Summary . .....................I........................ ........ ................... ................................................................... ......
CHAPTER III: THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RUSSIAN
APARTMENT BUILDINGS ................................................................................ 57
Heating Buildings......................... ........... ..................................................................................................... 58
The Building Environment.................................... . ............................................... ............. 58
Hot Water Heating Systems ................................................................................... 59
The Russian Climate ................ ................................................................................................................ .. .... 62
Design Temperatures .................................................................... ..... .. 63
Russian Apartment Buildings ....................................... 64
6......
Building Characteristics ......... ........... ................................................................ 6
Evolution of Russian Building Codes .................................................................................. 80
The District-Heated Housing Stocks of Moscow, Russia, and the CIS............................93
System Design and Actual Conditions.......................................................................................... 00
Organization of the MFB Construction Industry ............................................. ........ .. 102
Sum ma ry .................................................................................................................................................................. 104
CHAPTER IV: THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RUSSIAN
DISTRICT HEATING SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................... 107
District Heating Systems................. ............ ............................................................................................. 107
Existing DH Systems ................................................ ...................... ............ ...................... ................ 109
Cogeneration .............................................................................................................................. 109
Central Plants .......................................................................................................................................... 110
Distribution Systems ..................................... .................... ...................... 11 3
Russian District Heating Systems .... .................... ...................................................... ..... 115
System Configuration........................................................... ............. . ...... 116
System Operation .................................................................................. .................. ............ 26....
Technical Impediments to Energy Savings..................................................................................................... 133
The Distribution System ...................... ................................................. . ....... 134
Central Heating Plants ...................................... . .... .................................. 137
Institutional Impediments to Energy Savings .............. 14.............................................................................140
Summary .................................................................................................................................................................. 142
CHAPTER V: POTENTIAL END-USE ENERGY SAVINGS IN A
MOSCOW APARTMENT BUILDING ................................................................. 143
Description of the Test Building ........................................................... .. . . . . 143
Calculated Energy C sumptio ......................................................................... ................................ 145
Measured Energy Conusumption ............................................1.5.0.............................................
Comparing Calculated and Measured Energy Consumption.......................................................154
Potential Energy Savings. ...................................... .............................................................................1..5.9.......
Improving Space-Heating System Controls ............................. ...... .... ..........165
Summary . ......................... .......................... .....................16.8.....................
CHAPTER VI: CONCLUSION ............................................... .....................................1 71
The Current state of Building Heating Systems ........................................................................ 172
The Evolution of the Russian Apartment Building Stock.........................................................172
Heating System Effectiveness............................................................................................ ............... 173
Energy Efficiency .................................................................................................................................. 175
Potential Improvements in Building Heating Systems............................................. .. ....... 176
Potential End-Use Energy Savings .. . ...... .................... .......... ..... 176
Diversity in District-Heated Russian Apartment Buildings .. ....................................... 176
The Most Promising Areas for Efficiency Improvements ...................... . .. 180
Last Word........................................................................................................................................ 180
1......
APPEN DIX A .............................. ................................................................................................................................. 183
APPENDIX B ..................................................................... ......................................................... .................... 184
APPEN D IX C .............................................. ......................................................................................................... 118899................
192..............................................................................
APPENDIX D ............................................................................... 192
1"6
R-~--Ec-r FE RE `NCE r S .Lr .. ............................................................................................................................................. v·
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: World Primary Energy Consumption ..................................................................................... 17
Figure 1.2: Distribution of Proven World Energy Reserves, 1991 ............................
Figure 1.3: Structure of Primary Energy Use in the CIS in 1985 ..... ............ 21
Figure 1.4: Residential Space-Heating Energy Intensity, 1985.......................................................22
Figure 1.5: Living Area per Capita, 1985 ........................ .....................................................
Figure 1.6: Conceptualization of the District Heating Energy Provision System...............................................25
Figure 2.1: The Former Soviet Union ........ ... ......... ...................... .............................. .28
Figure 2.2: USSR Population .................. ..................................................................................................... 35
Figure 2.3: Housing Stocks ................ ................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 2.4: Structure of USSR Housing Stock ................................................................................... .43
Figure 2.5: Structure of Russia's Urban Housing Stoc k................ ................................................ ................44
Figure 2.6: Intersection of Three Subsectors of the CIS Energy Economy........................................................50
Figure 3.1: Disposition of Heat Supplied to District-Heated Russian Apartment Buildings......................60
Figure 32: Pipe Layouts in Centralized Heating Systems.........................................................................................61
Figure 3.3: Diagram of Building Jet Pump ......................... .................................................69
Figure 3.4: Two Kinds of Block Construction. ........................................................................................................ 73
Figure 3.5: Two Large Panel Designs ................................................................................................. 73
Figure 3.6: Cross-Sections of Four Large-Panel Wall Sections................................................................................. 75
Figure 3.7: Two Building Assembly Methods ..............................................................................
Figure 3.8: The CIS Apartment Building and District-Heated Buildings Sectors.......................................... .......94
Figure 3.9: Main Types of Wall Construction Used in New Apartment Buildings in the USSR.............95
Figure 3.10: Common Heights of New Apartment Buildings in the USSR ..................................................... 96
Figure 3.11: Structure of New Apartment Building Construction in Moscow, by area............................... 97
Figure 3.12: Estimated Structure of Moscow's District-Heated MFB Stock in 1992................................. 98
Figure 3.13: Estimated Structure of New MFBs in the USSR, by area........................................99
Figure 3.14: Estimated Structure of the USSR's District-Heated MFB Stock in 1989 ..............................99
Figure4.1: The District Heating Concep. .......................................................................................................................... 107
Figure 4.2: Typical Load Curves for Electricity or Heal .............................................................................................. 112
Figure 4.3: Layout of a Condensing ITOC Station on the Regenerative Rankine Cycle ...............................113
Figure 4.4: Direct and Indirect District Heating Distribution Networks.............................................. 115
Figure 4.5: Layout of a Typical Russian District Heating Distribution Network.......................... .... 122
Figure 4.6: Two Possible Open DHW Systems, with Dependent Space-Heating Connection....................123
Figure 4.7: A Closed DHW System (mixed design shown) with Independent
Space-Heating Connection .................................................. 124
Figure 4.8: District-Heating Supply Water Temperature Schedules for Minsk ............. ............... ...1..2.8
Figure 4.9: Heat Savings Transmission through DH Distribution Networks ................ .......... 135
Figure 4.10: Heat Savings Transmission through TETs....................... ................................ 138
Figure 5.1: Plan View of the P44 Test Building ........................................................................................ 144
Figure 52: Calculated Structure of P44 Heating Loads, baseline case................................ .... ..... 149
Figure 5.3: Calculated Sensitivities of Model Parameters, baseline case with
com santitT = 18 OC .................................................................. ............................................................ 150
Figure 5.4: Results of NIISF Experiment on P44 .......................... .................................................................... 152
Figure 5.5: Bin-Sorted Results of NIISF Experiment on P44.............................................................................153
Figure 5.6: Measured and Calculated Heating Loads, baseline case ....................................... ........ 154
Figure 5.7: Measured and Calculated Heating Loads, measured indoor temperatures ............................ ... 155
Figure 5.8: Sensitivities of P44's Heating Loads .................................................................................................... 158
Figure 5.9: Revised Potential End-Use Heating Energy Savings in the
P44 Experimental Building ................................................................................................. .............. 160
Figure 5.10: Estimates of Potential End-Use Heating Energy Savings in Moscow's
k ocf oPt4S 4 -Series s .............................. -