Rural Finance and Poverty Alleviation - International Food Policy PDF
Preview Rural Finance and Poverty Alleviation - International Food Policy
TYREVOP DNA ECNANIF LARUR NOITIAVELLA MANFRED ZELLER MANOHAR SHARMA FOODP OLICYR EPORT INTERNATIONAL FOOD POLICY RESEARCH INSTITUTE li1si9tohn7e 5d tab tweuats se sti seaIrn ch Rie cy tioFnoaPol odl na ter ITn he tiogniael s nsatta rindaottne iavl e tera nna dn a tiin fy terl yazinde de n al ana cies ing fiong rpf ooloiadw bmorelleedt noepe dtosan in oafv el stuhs e de tries anidn coonm te chsoei ups on ono lroerw- pha lar em ticbuas is, with par cisefoigrset arettdohp er e searef cth riWegshr. ioultpeithrsn hee o sceo un tion, ing tittorhen i to geur to dftu icnvt ue h aen dt hriubn o fj erce mal con ob favctoolrvs ed in are ing many plirynso g is andr angqaiduenniorgarf , l y wide- rue n - searchtute’re s sti Ttohr. Ien finefd oods ec rowldy e yonnaa d r inbg e tend cesseasn edx tmieon nts weirrvatnaa htn e d flgerlawcam glitabods npiov e dr c i prrwe ooc rolpl d ub uiiodtftiss y tiehnq eg prov taiinom dn duc ifnog opdr o creas estiin en d ter institutiionn s - min erasd , ifoorn m eropsi, n mak cy nattpeood li semi sualtrds ei s searrce h tioRe n. bu tri - na ter tiion annda l cwenira ntehd coen rs oaetnrh ds , search lyrse ts, ania cy tpool rs, tra is - y.citural pol cul rtii onalf ooda nda g tionAag l na ter tiGvre ouoIpnn ta sul toetfhr C eo n searcceh n IFPRriaIe s - setaurcrh al cpeoiravt cRneude s l frsourme p ri the Arab Fund for Eco - nomic lia, mentg, iumt, ra zaoinpld , Becal idaAa,l us vBerla CSao n De sitoh ne, Foodmis peaCn om martkh, Eeu ro biaD, en lom CAREC,h inaC,o tion, Fratniceot,n iod tofa hent she, t Uhen iFztoaer dd FNoa un gani ture Or cul ri and Ag nomicEfcoto rr y is eMrian l Femd an tGtiehor en , era op Co cal ni AgmeaTen ncfh coyr Ger ment Bank, thoep In vedli aA, metrihmceean n tI, Dne tIen r- op velt ion and De era op Co - tionari l Fund nafo r Ag tera da), thtere I(n sCeaan rch Cmen ent Re op vel tional De na ter - treipcay nt, ure aly, Ctlehn amenPe odnJcl t, a u, l LaInt dIr oe p ri and velt uArg al Dce ul vel sweaay,s Dlte ahned s, OvNeor r bieqru e, the zaNme th lawi, rMio ca)(, SMoa uth Af - tion, tpuitneSdrel, aoise uc, r tah, sttiimhptF ee honf eSet uA pln f ain,PIhn Roiopl c ke land, denz, er the SwSe wit Unitedd om, meKnit ntg he op Pro Unitteivdoe nls Na De - gramme,t heU nitedS tates,a ndt heW orldB ank IFPRI ton, D.C. 20006 • U.S.A. • 1-202-862-5600ing h s .a •WW. N,teert SK3302 ripfi/gro.raigc.ww w:BE W•moc.tengc@irpf i:LIAM- E•9344-764-202- 1:XAF R F URAL INANCE P A AND OVERTY LLEVIATION Manfred Zeller and Manohar Sharma F P R OOD OLICY EPORT INTERNATIONAL FOOD POLICY RESEARCH INSTITUTE WASHINGTON, D.C. JUNE 1998 C ONTENTS cea ferP 5 onit cud ort nI 7 fileo t rneP ilC 8 nance l ai rF u Ros etcruosc iRle Pub g nit tim moC 15 m?e hmTo rnfra e eLnWs naosC s eL tahW: stek r aMl am rof nI 81 onit av on l n aInoit ut its g n niI trop Sup icy: l c iolP buP 22 nsois ulc noC 26 setoN 29 5 P REFACE Teh tiotnn oma for ents in prpes ort his re cre tnoe eadlesdo is n oitc ialc certed pub con - e l saruohstraints that poor ru credit con - tu sti iwnment h icihn ron vi g nilbn eate an ena - e l saruohtailed ru rived morfe dholds face, de - aged dnaenvigcour tion sn ieva no tional in d betyc uIdFPRI and its col covn eys hold sur - nors, ments, o dern e rmoom o. rdoater psv oG a cirtries of Asia and Af niicnno teuors n ra labo or tal men ern gov ners, non tio ti g niprac knab - oon, China, Egypt,er desh, m aC la (Bang tions musttu sti sin earch ti one sd, rnaza gani , lapandlawi, Ne car, Ma gas Ghana, Mada point the costs,gether ylesol cotn ip ko rtow tion otkeamma for stan)I. tu sest hisi n Paki ing ru g trial efmoeten ptuo re fits, dnau fbene - tion in ven ter lic in b atue ppri pro the case for ap .snoit ut itscial in nan lari f kets ndacial r amnan l arfi ing ru en strength sdultns al acre iripents em t roppres ehTe r lics aewhere pub s noisabout ar ulcdraws con h craespro try re coun ti mfursal ioo ns m clu con - scribessources may best be spent. It de re y ll anim4.991gan for be marg ta ,IRPFI taht tionaltu sti nous in dige ten in mal, f ofor wohn i tors fromra labo yna MIRP FfIfats dnal oc cs lgunbisa ndl end ments—from sav range ar - tionstu sti in ment ern angh craesdo v other re puttail spohs dnan iworkstmoar ls e l gnt ien uted to thetrib rectly n ocdi recitn orl y ei vdah g nisav rolceeded in tai ersc —have usdeal - sisthe h craes dnn aystry case study re coun eh icteos tance serv sur ings, credit, and in bleJoa, chviBomrn a un,a ng naAswork. Ro tions totu sti mal in for ables in .r otoaphWn e , seEilueenh Ken BrotFecrr Haae,ni zd mi Su - ices thatcial serv nan e lbafi niatvide sus pro a,yataMs el r ahC ,kilaMl iah o S ,gniL uhZ ,yden ortl amsec tivitenhs f eo r era op sknab dnao c ,gno yag non ePlay taq, El h msed uMham Mo , snoitfail to pro pectionwsi, tfhe ewx tu sti in - durt Ger man, h r ulaRr edPhiri, Zil na xe lA vide? What are their strengths and weak - tebo, Tshi see tta Ttowe, Ro der, m iSSchrie - torsemc al sfor ocann s nWelhseass t e s? con all Yi Zhonga ng baakan, Jdi alai khsT - portinstitutions w a mr?odmr efehhtTe r dadHraend ce atlWhusLeaoat n w k e d. trib u t itsm ellies in in sic b orparba gthuet haet s - , stnemandfert m y roocfnie f alCcM n donBa edtnalp rily s nartma ments, sum range tional ar script.g nithis manu tin afor med lis Skill Phyl tems, sys ing l ambank for based from urban- n ysy rtnuoc - ssorc eht roft rop p usl aic nan iF - erstion costs for lend ac high trans htahvaet f oy rt si n iM eht ybd ediv o rp saws tlus e r fos is eht ers alike. For the lender, theserow dnar ob tnem po lev e D dnan oit are po o Cc imon ocE inum larnge g d errinu cscreen cosatirsn e - het dnay nam r eG foc il bup e Rl are d eF ,)ZMB( ingforc g niand en roters, moni row bobor efr s noit are po o Cl ac in h ceT rof ycnegAn am reG g nitiny gatracatmnsad, n cured naoln ocse un pus erews ei d utsy rt n uocl au div id n i ehT .)ZTG( - theserower, its. For the bor pos ings e d sav a l g naB: seic n egar on o dg ni wol l of eht yb detrop - costtastkf heoteo ri fammo n etd h reer - arc sag a daM dna ,anihC, noo re m aC ,hsed ing e dimanlk oora nsg cur secruos tnepse s - S..U(n ats i kaP dna tpygE ,)ZTG dna ZMB( t isopor loan terms. ate e dpri pro ap its, or in pos ntem po lev e Dl anoit an ret n I rof ycnegA cent ples foe ram lot orkoaesptx nally, the re Fi rel lef e kcoR ehT ,FECINU(i wal a M ,)]DIASU[ eme omsoctitohonavs te r va no tion nal itu sti in h sirI ,8991 ecnis dna ,DIASU ,ZTG, noit ad nuoF cludes that just ascles. It con sta fo esehtb o niW ,DIASU(l ap e N dna ,)DIASU( anahG ,)diA - velop r too tde c islec there is a role for the pub eDl anoit an ret n I dna ,ZTG, lanoit an ret n I kcor - gies,nolo d esatecbh t ropscience- rop us ).ert n eCh craes e Rt nem po lev 7 I NTRODUCTION Tvel holds in de he myth that poor house - e cne nvoog dnepsive e dces witthhp eo ore,x - ten earn lesst rif eoso, hwing coun op calliti e vio sp aving, dnar epd mennt ufern orthy wor it lar a ,yad era tond ercdol at han capped their per i verdely nahpatronage—se - able to save has been firmly put to rest in re - icess gnseriv sion of sav vi ao n cree. phTform holen dses , bathicenyte arsP.o ohro use cause the im d etce eblgwas also largely ne - able ndali cial value on re found, place spe s oeethtciposit serv g nie d divtance of pro por nan etnyt peofsfi fer cess to dif uc ed atin con - r oncause o dd etaand be ic erppoor was not ap costable son rea at able ices, avail cial serv tive terms.trac able t naoe cnanwas avail if c ificneeds. Creditinttog h eisrp e ter dna ac t serates retd ezidin isg niloans at sub tu birt siD larties can help poor ru cili ings a f dnv aas sized. d n tA si layolwsoaoratfepha m seaw thmeenirt aug ten aangoe df man holds house ful and the wealthy to pre er ciallw y op eo hst - quires ecru osdnc aager re a wise emer oth edzid isotffits h seu b tp mtesom fo ehte neb ties for si ces c ie snquafte ooda ndo therb a ade emos niver, toicofrn editM.o reo bu tri dis able mehttos eitn e ilicClriees. dfia t their fami ers dnuof ti ot rieht dal aclead itiltries, o pcoun - yothnaoenwid dnr s ecruose bcial re nan tap fi t clong-elasist nym ovest oc ol tage ote rvan able in it tially f orpten tag e o fpovan ekatd a - ents,cipi re sidy deoutstabnding ftrsso umb managed sav . seitinutroppoWell- ment vest - cally n a odi ri ers e p dna ni ynam sesacd ael - tives for house cen e diivn s eitpro ilic ifna gs - sionmis t sere retnesty or in naom luonacne d t neomr tsevholds to build up funds for in jec cal b oliti n iato pr etod at s margin or orp - cili s a gnfitioCnr. ediatn sda v sump ture n ocfu - greeartos ldnoyei tdtiveTsh.et syaepoc efs e vorpt seivn land im ers otn iable farm ties en - rears bal plialnnodae a r n ci dis rower bor - ogy such asnol tech tural cul ri stne mrog a looned. Not only did the banks fail to serve sre zi literal fer yieldin g s ddenn eaismhigh- lat able ot egdelpl oc eht roop ohw erewn u - ing hettain s em(wohilce sus e saercin that in ent pend cally e de mcahcroni ertaahlble,e sy o holds e l saruohe cruosbase). For ru ral re natu sidysions b fuosfu on larger and larger in fia ngs whdono o otw lna ndc,r ediatn sda v - ctepyond any pros g ne bimonqeuyi,c sklliyd ilyd nafpam lish or ex tab tie p s s lneeahccili ity. ynaMofabil tain s cial usnan term fi of long- ecne refg ntihe dif tially mak ten prises, o pter en ated ot yltsocndaer gen fect, e d ,meht nif e i monerty dna nao ceing v optween d nirgbe - .smargfer pro e s namrtocinequitable in soariv n g row term bor e rliufe. cShort- cally se - t ropfor state-In the past 15 years, sup tionsump n ian tocten used to main ioanf rges tural banks has greatlycul ri sponsored g a when ties si ces sic e n a fbo esmoc n id loh esuoh ketcial r amnan , denilcedand the need for fi retfa —yli rar op m ete nilc ed eb rot sev a bad har - tions caused by pasttor tify dis forms otc erre . elp masons, for ex tural a escul ri tween ag ver uni most ciiness o awl ment poli ern gov - atices cial serv nan ing fi vid e hkTsa tfoo rp s,tnem nre, revegov . degdeHow lwonksally ac itede lba tsoc ot esoht ohw evahm il nosrea a tions za gani tal or men ern gov nnaoonrn ds , do l itthe. reveUn sets has not been easy, how as e vitmod an rete uton iltook for al (NGOs) con - tries, state-g nicoun po lev1980ismn a ndye ices to thecial serv nan ing fi tend efleosx r eh tkoo tsknat nemb po lev tural e dcul ri ag run callynomi tive and eco fec rural roop ni naf e ns teikl amcredit mar ing for lish tab dae lnis e s no idteksae racal ques Twyapyi a.bl e tain sus s gniof moc, revethe short eas. How ral ar ru ices are de cial serv nan t ashewpy tfoi f - ples taht yeht erewedsabci g npirin the bank cess tomanded by the poor? How does ac tionaliza gan , gni nar oized lend al er lat on—col far n wa?ocrH e o eofhpott cefthe wel credit af ssenttives od ob usi cen ian onyu t puth etsiw tivelyfec mtoioners f e tu sti cial in nan ral fi ru 8 tions inva no W? hytaretk indso fi n duce v opre ti oesns minoossi treme o pinx g esuk l at ftore - n arge cialsled for and howtional e dtu sti in .txet w orn ocg ni morf ar an zi la resues or gen ated? What is the role ofer can they be gen ancedvide a bal tempo t rs optt t ropaThis re tionslu ? ssecThe so ment in this pro ern gov gnisues, giv is ing ly der sion feohn tucus dis tiones rar e wss e esouetqhtposed in an pro ing claims and pointspet n oit otm oc net eudt a the y ltneuqing, fre flict con and ing fus n etcon fo fo.weiv C P LIENT ROFILE ices to Scial serv nan sion fi ofvi o ful rpcess uc triesT. he“ poor”a red e wictpohoouir n n non - tuorwfe ho s eriu aq raelcc ipthe poor re fourth feohttom - eno denif ereh sa ehtt ob dra hertions aza ali er the “poor” are. But gen whrehoalds nnp ckbeaeyrp d e lphouse mas - tions fo eht roop niintaLdi to make. Con els.e mloecv hold in ita house entfer tral aisA era etiuqf idica ron eCAmer eht fo esabe cruos e rd eti m ily lemert x e ehT rica. Hence,frotmh osiSeno utAhs ioAarf 1.e lb a T nit ned i ve sia cir f A dna aisA ni roop s tniartasnd the best ap turotfhce eo n ehta n - n,oit ac u dec is a b kcal roop eht foy ti roj a m ehT d neopn the char ltihdnee g m proach for tack - ireht rofe rut luc ir g a not ne dnep e dy li ram i rp era tion. p Ala geu t poptics of the tar is ter ac - of stnuoma llamsy lemert x e nwo, dooh il evil gion may not beproaches that work in one re tas eil i maf egralt rop p us dna, noit av it l uc rof dnal ices, reanhd toserv planted to an ily s nartread r,eht r uF. sle v ele moc n ia ti p ac repe ga re v a wol en ofd namodress ehte dfully d acess tac huts r u sad eci v res llew sa ton eras ae r al ar u r ecnis - ers,tural d artcul ri r oop—elaetg netype of cli c urts arf n il aic o s dnal ac i syhp ybs ret n ec nab - s se esohtrd fon aple—mfaay itlao d am rofx e - o,id a r, senohp e let ,sloohcs ,sdaor sa hcus erut ers nihettence farm sis other type—semisub ekat oty ti cap a c rieht, sci n ilc htlaeh dna ,spohs g niof dnats redun quate ade gion. In re same ylerev e s sis eit in ut rop p ot ek r am foe gat nav da tiootrn h ela enu t popotions ft hec li di ehtn oc estw ol eht otg ni gnol e bs dloh e suoH. deliat ruc s noaires icy cide tewxitwhht piioncl h con ntec r ep 19 sa hcum sa dnepse lit r auqe moc ni cy ampoonn lgoi isten leads to ten edf aom - 1).e ru g iF( doof no tegdubn oit pmus n oc rieht fo s reabout what is ga , s rdonann aomders, mak ,wol os eras gni n rae riehte suac e b ,os nevE ices forcial serv nan t ropfi eht tseb yaw otp us .yrg n uh ogs emit e mos yeht eht, tlus2e r a sA r ojchar the poor. With this in mind, some ma - e ht ros gni n rae rieht ni pord a fos ecneuq es noc tion pa tici tics of the poor and their par is ter ac hcuss erut id nep x ed etcep xe n ue cnan i f ot deen ket u s nricial r amnan mal fi for l dn amniain for - s.uo ir e s etiuq eb dluocs esnep x el ac i dem sa fiedti a cirand Asia are iden os fAae f ral ar or semite srev d ag ni r udg ni wor r ob foe lc y c ehT edvir sdae ire s .ereh ehT atad rof ehty lana g ni yap e r rog ni v as dnas nos a esg ni t nalpg ni rud d etcudbyveys n ochold sur morf enine suoh doog eras gni n rae nehw rot sev r ahr et f a snaol tailed data on creditlected e dIFPtRchIoa,l t eht fom et s ysd ooh il e vil eht fo trapl arg et n i na si tion. pa tici kr et apmar 1cus of thefo the Here i kaP nis ei d uts IRPFI nit ned i ve si sihT .roop - sons is not so much thepari try com coun ter in a, lnap e N nI. lap e N dna, rac sag a daM ,nats (asselves tions m ehtac croeftutd rrie atn s na 27 tuoba ,roop eht foy ti roj a mg ni mlehw revo t u,b)yltae rygrtries avs noitamong coun id noc alic nan i f fo mrof emos nid egag n e, tnec rep tween eht roop dnahets ece neb refthe dif het fo flah ylraen, rac sag a daM nI . snoit ca snart ryt coubn yti cs, is ter ac hold r ahce slected uohe lb1—Se aT shed al gnaB noo re maC anihC ptygE anahG arc sag adaM wial aM alp eN ants ikaP oroP orop noN ort ac id nI (P) P)N( P NP P NP P NP P NP P NP P NP P NP P NP , ezisd lohe suoh naeM elp o ep fo rebmun 5 .4 5 .0 8 .5 6 .0 4 .8 4.4 7 .7 6 .2 8 .4 6 .8 6 .8 5 .3 5 .3 4 .0 6 .3 7 .5 11 .2 8 .4 fon oit acu de fo sraeY t)necr ep( daehd loh e suoh a None 73 .3 49 .3 36 .9 33 .9 17 .1 9 .3 56 .2 39 .2 29 .3 20 .9 13 .0 21 .6 30 .0 27 .0 93 .1 93 .3 64 .2 59 .6 rsaey evifr edn U 21 .3 20 .4 52 .8 58 .8 42 .4 42 .0 15 .0 13 .6 10 .6 4 .6 67 .4 53 .6 51 .0 39 .0 2 .3 3 .7 0 .0 0 .0 sraey thgie ot eviF 3 .3 14 .2 8 .3 8 .2 32 .5 38 .1 12 .9 16 .1 14 .6 7 .9 17 .4 13 .5 18 .0 29 .0 4 .5 2 .6 29 .0 24 .2 veoba ro eniN 2 .0 16 .0 0 .0 4 .2 7 .7 10 .3 16 .0 30 .9 45 .4 66 .9 2 .2 11 .2 1 .0 5 .0 0 .0 0 .6 6 .8 16 .3 dsaehd lohe suoh fot nec reP d eyolpme- fles g ni trope r l ap icn irp sag nim raf noit ap ucc o b 16 .0 44 .6 69 .4 62 .0 91 .1 81 .2 23 .4 27 .3 76 .0 63 .0 76 .6 81 .0 80 .0 59 .0 n .a. n a.. 24 0. 85 1. iphs ren wo dnal naeM s)eratc eh( 0 .2 0 .6 2 .5 4 .3 2 .0 2 .0 0 .4 0 .8 2 .6 3 .4 2 .1 3 .3 1 .5 1 .7 0 .5 1 .5 1 .5 4 .9 pere mocn il aunn a naeM S$U, rebm emd lohe suoh 801 6. 232 2. 971 .1 753 .2 74 .1 402 26. 632 3. 146 5. 28 8. 712 2. 86 6. 322 .9 32 .7 61 0. 90 .0 811 5. 612 6. 704 2. Source: nance (see notera l 1f)i .searcoh nr u IFPRIr e Notes: turei) di pen tion ex sump come (or con tiloe fi n esqt uar long toP t=h peo loorw . The poor be tries.tivce oun spec n their re les.poor atrie the thproore. Teh oet hneorn quar NP = non o1o9n9C, 2h;i n1a9,9G 4h;a1 na, er d1e9sh9C, 4a;m la avreByes a:n g tsohoufedr s ri Tthipeme e st1a9n8, 6–91;1p9a9l1, –P9a2k;i l1a9w9iN, 5e ; 19Mc9aa r2, ; gas 992–9M3a;d a Egypt,1 997. ablen.”.a. is “not avail hhold tioohfn o use ca Fbooyr ree ar. roesfd u ila ly jofr am afettmrhoa e s hhoeld adr”e “House dfieyvr eea trs” a“teu; n er lit tahgaae irtl e cent ftteohrps ee r go“rny oner”e eadt,h cea te thoo se tion; “five ito eightpc ylaeea tressd ”o tmo tejh ousn ewm whahorohy caeoddm au tm osts omep ri or level school; and “inoir lneev oerl paslbcoehvtoeoe”sl.d otom tesh oesn e who com di count for an ad turae c cul ri boreris npa alg ly as daily la ci binpg rin hold heads work House r.oopcent focret ntit hofeno pra olot h3re7 a .nn6od n p1e0r .1 per 01 budtigon etsump t nfon eoccure 1—Per Fig cro i l armture or ru cul ri l anosloans for ag aes - fooding quir cat ec d oatlo al rowede r tosnbut omaprisel sl . aemhsTter en y rt htiw aa lerlawi, a yrev roopn uocis in Ma - ket.mal credit mar for e vitin catively in tives,ers—friends, rela l amlend rof nI lend ey , srn mpaool umorgfor bors, in neigh - vide the bulk of the loans in everyers—pro e r3u). i wal(Fig ceGMhapa anndt a x try ecoun , elpless maoon, rofx eer Cam and stan In Paki d eworbycenot ft hea mountb or per 5 than tain r emod ofrfhoob lwas ds e l saruohpoor ru - ersl amlend , tropfor ers. In this re lamd nel mentop vel tural e dcul ri ot sifss tatea nda g noc tions. e hTtu sti in nance fi cro skna bdna weni m p o s dnno oacicrcludes ediutn r etgroup in tal - grams nur ybv ogprbo ased tives, group- era - tal or men ern gov cin e s ornomenn t egaern - blaage nksT.h neew tions, dnal ivza gani tions suc tu sti e cnanin if orcd esabmi -rebmem - nance (see noteS o1).urracl ef:i searcoh nr u IFPRrI e tile in e mr auqoct sien fulrley acthh peo or cess lawi. a ddesh Mna la Bang d esu erew snaol tahtd etrop e rs dloh e suoh roop tain a smaller share of their erhoTob po y eht nehws eic neg r emed loh e suoh htiw epoc ot totr hant hen on c l eamsloans from the for - rus tidercl ar u r 5891 a, nats i kaP nI. derruc co - tries (China, Egypt,poor in six coun nats i kaP fot nem nre v og eht ybd etcud n oc yev esuoh roop fot nec r ep 04 ylraen tahtd etac id ni - s.noit ca s nart tiderc nid egag n e sdloh 3 frroowm ed age tnuomar ober urv e A—2Fig yteaiamrvolue ynt la mu cu age er The av n anl arfi mal ru for in andm al for - mal ho ld s mer ohortffrowed by poor house bor erd lohptors repe suohcial sec rtaorns gfersao bmo UuSt$ 4 sec mal for and in year US$1t3do3 esh la ti oUw aSl$80i nB ang in Ma pledraanns wroa net Tshae. nm oo rein Cam - tion ofcep tive; hti wehtx eta sen re rep ally tion nectcahsoretan ney, ChinaE,g ypta,nP da ki - mal fi lafor gwhere es eal inds vinaatr riant ed - rptelhaaaFi rcosteer i do n.s tu sti cial in nan - ianlrieg k etoly row els of bor lev ported son, re the er ages. Nev er v tional abhei ghetrh anna - r oophouse e 2 shorws tuhat the non less, Fig - holde lses ufoohti per three quar sd leohht(p u w ormuch more than the poor,comr e) obin tion a. nfaohGcep hti wehtx e 4ver, theo e roM e r2 uis not avail loan amount shown in Fig - out e h,traeyutbrower through able to the bor eral skeew r.osh tsniohmT sie bonflsoyer v - lmal oansa reg ivenf oro nlyfor esuac tsomn i mala few days or weeks. Even many for e holds rae lhpouse tained y behm tas snaolb o nanc(e seen otSe1o ).urcrea:fl i searcoh nr u IFPRI re
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