Robotics and Automation Handbook

579 Pages·2005·24.192 MB·English

by  Thomas R. Kurfess

ROBOTICS AND
AUTOMATION HANDBOOK
E
DITED BY
Thomas R. Kurfess
Ph.D., P.E.
CRC PR ESS
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC
1804_Disclaimer.fm Page 1 Tuesday, August 17, 2004 3:07 PM
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Robotics and automation handbook / edited by Thomas R. Kurfess.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-1804-1 (alk. paper)
1. Robotics--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Kurfess, Thomas R.
TJ211.R5573 2000
629.8’92—dc21 2004049656
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Preface
Robotsaremachinesthathaveinterestedthegeneralpopulationthroughouthistory.Ingeneral,theyare
machinesordevicesthatoperateautomaticallyorbyremotecontrol.Clearlypeoplehavewantedtouse
such equipment since simple devices were developed. The word robot itself comes from Czech robota,
“servitude, forced labor,” and was coined in 1923 (from dictionary.com). Since then robots have been
characterizedbythemediaasmachinesthatlooksimilartohumans.Robotssuchas“RobbytheRobot”
orRobotfromtheLostinSpacetelevisionseriesdefinedtheappearanceofrobotstoseveralgenerations.
However,robotsaremorethanmachinesthatwalkaroundyelling“Danger!”Theyareusedinavarietyof
tasksfromtheveryexciting,suchasspaceexploration(e.g.,theMarsRover),totheverymundane(e.g.,
vacuumingyourhome,whichisnotasimpletask).Theyarecomplexandusefulsystemsthathavebeen
employedinindustryforseveraldecades.Astechnologyadvances,thecapabilityandutilityofrobotshave
increaseddramatically.Today,wehaverobotsthatassemblecars,weld,flythroughhostileenvironments,
andexploretheharshestenvironmentsfromthedepthsoftheocean,tothecoldanddarkenvironmentof
theAntarctic,tothehazardousdepthsofactivevolcanoes,tothefarthestreachesofouterspace.Robots
takeontasksthatpeopledonotwanttoperform.Perhapsthesetasksaretooboring,perhapstheyaretoo
dangerous,orperhapstherobotcanoutperformitshumancounterpart.
Thistextistargetedatthefundamentalsofrobotdesign,implementation,andapplication.Asrobots
areusedinasubstantialnumberoffunctions,thisbookonlyscratchesthesurfaceoftheirapplications.
However,itdoesprovideafirmbasisforengineersandscientistsinterestedineitherfabricationorutilizing
roboticsystems.Thefirstpartofthishandbookpresentsanumberofdesignissuesthatmustbeconsidered
in building and utilizing a robotic system. Both issues related to the entire robot, such as control and
trajectoryplanninganddynamicsarediscussed.Criticalconceptssuchasprecisioncontrolofrotaryand
linearaxesarealsopresentedattheyarenecessarytoyieldoptimalperformanceoutofaroboticsystem.The
bookthencontinueswithanumberofspecializedapplicationsofroboticsystems.Intheseapplications,
suchasthemedicalarena,particulardesignandsystemsconsiderationsarepresentedthatarehighlighted
bytheseapplicationsbutarecriticalinasignificantcross-sectionofareas.Itwasapleasuretoworkwith
theauthorsofthevarioussections.Theyareexpertsintheirareas,andinreviewingtheirmaterial,Ihave
improvedmyunderstandingofroboticsystems.Ihopethatthereaderswillenjoyreadingthetextasmuch
asIhaveenjoyedreadingandassemblingit.Ianticipatethatfutureversionsofthisbookwillincorporate
moreapplicationsaswellasadvancedconceptsinrobotdesignandimplementation.
Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC
The Editor
ThomasR.KurfessreceivedhisS.B.,S.M.,andPh.D.degreesinmechanicalengineeringfromM.I.T.in
1986,1987,and1989,respectively.HealsoreceivedanS.M.degreefromM.I.T.inelectricalengineering
andcomputersciencein1988.Followinggraduation,hejoinedCarnegieMellonUniversitywhereherose
totherankofAssociateProfessor.In1994hemovedtotheGeorgiaInstituteofTechnologywhereheis
currentlyaProfessorintheGeorgeW.WoodruffSchoolofMechanicalEngineering.Hepresentlyserves
asaparticipatingguestattheLawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratoryintheirPrecisionEngineering
Program.HeisalsoaspecialconsultantoftheUnitedNationstotheGovernmentofMalaysiainthearea
ofappliedmechatronicsandmanufacturing.Hisresearchworkfocusesonthedesignanddevelopment
of high precision manufacturing and metrology systems. He has chaired workshops for the National
ScienceFoundationonthefutureofengineeringeducationandservedontheCommitteeofVisitorsfor
NSF’sEngineeringEducationandCentersDivision.Hehashadsimilarrolesineducationandtechnology
assessmentforavarietyofcountriesaswellastheU.N.
Hisprimaryareaofresearchisprecisionengineering.Tothisendhehasappliedadvancedcontroltheory
tobothmeasurementmachinesandmachinetools,substantiallyimprovingtheirperformance.During
thepasttwelveyears,Dr.Kurfesshasconcentratedinprecisiongrinding,high-speedscanningcoordinate
measurementmachines,andstatisticalanalysisofCMMdata.Heisactivelyinvolvedinusingadvanced
mechatronicsunitsinlargescaleapplicationstogeneratenextgenerationhighperformancesystems.Dr.
Kurfesshasanumberofresearchprojectssponsoredbybothindustryandgovernmentalagenciesinthis
area.Hehasalsogivenanumberofworkshops,sponsoredbytheNationalScienceFoundation,inthe
areasofteachingcontrolsandmechatronicstoavarietyofprofessorsthroughoutthecountry.
In 1992 he was awarded a National Science Foundation Young Investigator Award, and in 1993 he
receivedtheNationalScienceFoundationPresidentialFacultyFellowshipAward.Heisalsotherecipient
oftheASMEPiTauSigmaAward,theSMEYoungManufacturingEngineeroftheYearAward,theASME
GustusL.LarsonMemorialAwardandtheASMEBlackallMachineToolandGageAward.Hehasreceived
theClassof1940W.HowardEctor’sOutstandingTeacherAwardandtheOutstandingFacultyLeadership
for the Development of Graduate Research Assistants Award while at Georgia Tech. He is a registered
ProfessionalEngineer,andisactiveinseveralengineeringsocieties,includingASEE,ASME,ASPE,IEEE
andSME.HeiscurrentlyservingasaTechnicalAssociateEditorofthe SMEJournalofManufacturing
Systems,andAssociateEditoroftheASMEJournalofManufacturingScienceandEngineering.Hehasserved
asanAssociateEditoroftheASMEJournalofDynamicSystems,MeasurementandControl.Heisonthe
EditorialAdvisoryBoardoftheInternationalJournalofEngineeringEducation,andservesontheboardof
NorthAmericanManufacturingResearchInstituteofSME.
Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC
Contributors
MohanBodduluri DarrenM.Dawson HectorM.Gutierrez
RestorationRobotics ClemsonUniversity FloridaInstituteofTechnology
Sunnyvale,California ElectricalandComputer DepartmentofMechanicaland
Engineering AerospaceEngineering
WayneJ.Book Clemson,SouthCarolina Melbourne,Florida
GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology
WoodruffSchoolof BramdeJager YasuhisaHirata
MechanicalEngineering TechnicalUniversityof TohokuUniversity
Atlanta,Georgia Eindhoven DepartmentofBioengineering
Eindhoven,Netherlands andRobotics
StephenP.Buerger Sendai,Japan
JaydevP.Desai
MassachusettsInstituteof
DrexelUniversity NevilleHogan
Technology
MechanicalEngineering MEMDepartment MassachusettsInstituteof
Department Philadelphia,Pennsylvania Technology
NorthCambridge, MechanicalEngineering
JeanneSullivanFalcon
Massachusetts Department
NationalInstruments
NorthCambridge,
Austin,Texas
KeithW.Buffinton Massachusetts
BucknellUniversity
DanielD.Frey KunHuang
DepartmentofMechanical
MassachusettsInstituteof UniversityofIllinoisat
Engineering
Technology Urbana-Champagne
Lewisburg,Pennsylvania
MechanicalEngineering CoordinatedSciences
Department Laboratory
FrancescoBullo
NorthCambridge, Urbana,Illinois
UniversityofIllinoisat
Massachusetts
Urbana-Champaign
HodgeE.Jenkins,
CoordinatedScience RobertB.Gillespie
MercerUniversity
Laboratory UniversityofMichigan
MechanicalandIndustrial
Urbana,Illinois AnnArbor,Michigan
EngineeringDepartment
Macon,Georgia
GregoryS.Chirikjian J.WilliamGoodwine
JohnsHopkinsUniversity NotreDameUniversity DraganKostic´
DepartmentofMechanical AerospaceandMechanical TechnicalUniversityof
Engineering EngineeringDepartment Eindhoven
Baltimore,Maryland NotreDame,Indiana Eindhoven,Netherlands
Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC
KazuhiroKosuge SiddharthP.Nagarkatti MaartenSteinbuch
TohokuUniversity MKSInstruments,Inc. TechnicalUniversityof
DepartmentofBioengineering Methuen,Massachusetts Eindhoven
andRobotics Eindhoven,Netherlands
Sendai,Japan MarkL.Nagurka
MarquetteUniversity WesleyL.Stone
KennethA.Loparo DepartmentofMechanicaland ValparaisoUniversity
CaseWesternReserve IndustrialEngineering DepartmentofMechanical
University Milwaukee,Wisconsin Engineering
DepartmentofElectrical Wanatah,Indiana
Engineeringand
ChrisA.Raanes
ComputerScience IoannisS.Vakalis
AccurayIncorporated
Cleveland,Ohio InstitutefortheProtectionand
Sunnyvale,California
SecurityoftheCitizen
LonnieJ.Love (IPSC)EuropeanCommission
WilliamSinghose
OakRidgeNationalLaboratory JointResearchCentreI
GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology
OakRidge,Tennessee Ispra(VA),Italy
WoodruffSchoolof
StephenJ.Ludwick MechanicalEngineering MilosˇZˇefran
Aerotech,Inc. Atlanta,Georgia UniversityofIllinois
Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania ECEDepartment
MarkW.Spong
Chicago,Illinois
YiMa UniversityofIllinoisat
UniversityofIllinois Urbana-Champagne
atUrbana-Champagne CoordinatedSciences
CoordinatedSciences Laboratory
Laboratory Urbana,Illinois
Urbana,Illinois
Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC
Contents
1
TheHistoryofRobotics
Wesley L. Stone
2
Rigid-BodyKinematics
Gregorg S. Chirikjian
3
InverseKinematics
Bill Goodwine
4
Newton-EulerDynamicsofRobots
Mark L. Nagurka
5
LagrangianDynamics
Miloˇs Zˇefran and Francesco Bullo
6
Kane’sMethodinRobotics
Keith W. Buffinton
7
TheDynamicsofSystemsofInteractingRigidBodies
Kenneth A. Loparo and Ioannis S. Vakalis
8
D-HConvention
Jaydev P. Desai
9
TrajectoryPlanningforFlexibleRobots
William E. Singhose
10
ErrorBudgeting
Daniel D. Frey
11
DesignofRoboticEndEffectors
Hodge Jenkins
12
Sensors
Jeanne Sullivan Falcon
Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC
13
PrecisionPositioningofRotaryandLinearSystems
Stephen Ludwick
14
ModelingandIdentificationforRobotMotionControl
Dragan Kosti´c, Bram de Jager, and Maarten Steinbuch
15
MotionControlbyLinearFeedbackMethods
Dragan Kosti´c, Bram de Jager, and Maarten Steinbuch
16
Force/ImpedanceControlforRoboticManipulators
Siddharth P. Nagarkatti and Darren M. Dawson
17
RobustandAdaptiveMotionControlofManipulators
Mark W. Spong
18
SlidingModeControlofRoboticManipulators
Hector M. Gutierrez
19
ImpedanceandInteractionControl
Neville Hogan and Stephen P. Buerger
20
CoordinatedMotionControlofMultipleManipulators
Kazuhiro Kosuge and Yasuhisa Hirata
21
RobotSimulation
Lonnie J. Love
22
ASurveyofGeometricVision
Kun Huang and Yi Ma
23
HapticInterfacetoVirtualEnvironments
R. Brent Gillespie
24
FlexibleRobotArms
WayneJ.Book
25
RoboticsinMedicalApplications
Chris A. Raanes and Mohan Bodduluri
26
ManufacturingAutomation
Hodge Jenkins
Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC
1
The History of
Robotics
1.1 The History of Robotics
TheInfluenceofMythology • TheInfluenceofMotionPictures
• InventionsLeadingtoRobotics • FirstUseoftheWordRobot
• FirstUseoftheWordRobotics • TheBirthoftheIndustrial
Robot • RoboticsinResearchLaboratories
• RoboticsinIndustry • SpaceExploration • MilitaryandLaw
WesleyL.Stone EnforcementApplications • MedicalApplications
WesternCarolinaUniversity • OtherApplicationsandFrontiersofRobotics
1.1 The History of Robotics
The history of robotics is one that is highlighted by a fantasy world that has provided the inspiration
toconvertfantasyintoreality.Itisahistoryrichwithcinematiccreativity,scientificingenuity,anden-
trepreneurialvision.Quitesurprisingly,thedefinitionofarobotiscontroversial,evenamongroboticists.
Atoneendofthespectrumisthesciencefictionversionofarobot,typicallyoneofahumanform—an
androidorhumanoid—withanthropomorphicfeatures.Attheotherendofthespectrumistherepetitive,
efficientrobotofindustrialautomation.InISO8373,theInternationalOrganizationforStandardization
definesarobotas“anautomaticallycontrolled,reprogrammable,multipurposemanipulatorwiththree
ormoreaxes.”TheRobotInstituteofAmericadesignatesarobotas“areprogrammable,multifunctional
manipulatordesignedtomovematerial,parts,tools,orspecializeddevicesthroughvariousprogrammed
motionsfortheperformanceofavarietyoftasks.”AmoreinspiringdefinitionisofferedbyMerriam-
Webster,statingthatarobotis“amachinethatlookslikeahumanbeingandperformsvariouscomplex
acts(aswalkingortalking)ofahumanbeing.”
1.1.1 The Influence of Mythology
Mythology is filled with artificial beings across all cultures. According to Greek legend, after Cadmus
foundedthecityofThebes,hedestroyedthedragonthathadslainseveralofhiscompanions;Cadmus
thensowedthedragonteethintheground,fromwhichafiercearmyofarmedmenarose.Greekmythology
alsobringsthestoryofPygmalion,alovesicksculptor,whocarvesawomannamedGalateaoutofivory;
afterprayingtoAphrodite,Pygmalionhashiswishgrantedandhissculpturecomestolifeandbecomes
hisbride.Hebrewmythologyintroducesthegolem,aclayorstonestatue,whichissaidtocontainascroll
withreligiousormagicpowersthatanimateit;thegolemperformssimple,repetitivetasks,butisdifficult
tostop.InuitlegendinGreenlandtellsoftheTupilaq,orTupilak,whichisacreaturecreatedfromnatural
Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC
1-2 RoboticsandAutomationHandbook
materialsbythehandsofthosewhopracticedwitchcraft;theTupilaqisthensenttoseatodestroythe
enemiesofthecreator,butanadversepossibilityexisted—theTupilaqcanbeturnedonitscreatorifthe
enemyknowswitchcraft.Thehomunculus,firstintroducedby15thCenturyalchemistParacelsus,refers
toasmallhumanform,notallerthan12inches;originallyascribedtoworkassociatedwithagolem,the
homunculusbecamesynonymouswithaninnerbeing,orthe“littleman”thatcontrolsthethoughtsof
ahuman.In1818,MaryWollstonecraftShelleywroteFrankenstein,introducingthecreaturecreatedby
scientistVictorFrankensteinfromvariousmaterials,includingcadavers;Frankenstein’screationisgrossly
misunderstood,whichleadstothetragicdeathsofthescientistandmanyofthelovedonesinhislife.These
mythologicaltales,andmanylikethem,oftenhaveacommonthread:thecreatorsofthesupernatural
beingsoftenseetheircreationsturnonthem,typicallywithtragicresults.
1.1.2 The Influence of Motion Pictures
Theadventofmotionpicturesbroughttolifemanyofthesemythicalcreatures,aswellasaseemingly
endlesssupplyofnewartificialcreatures.In1926,Fritz’sLang’smovie“Metropolis”introducedthefirst
robot in a feature film. The 1951 film “The Day the Earth Stood Still” introduced the robot Gort and
thehumanoidalienKlaatu,whoarrivedinWashington,D.C.,intheirflyingsaucer.Robby,theRobot,
first made his appearance in “Forbidden Planet” (1956), becoming one of the most influential robots
incinematichistory.In1966,thetelevisionshow“LostinSpace”deliveredthelovablerobotB-9,who
consistentlysavedtheday,warningWillRobinsonofaliensapproaching.The1968movie“2001:ASpace
Odyssey”depictedaspacemissiongoneawry,whereHalemployedhisartificialintelligence(AI)towrest
controlofthespaceshipfromthehumanshewassupposedtoserve.In1977,“StarWars”broughttolife
twoofthemostendearingrobotsevertovisitthebigscreen—R2-D2andC3PO.Moviesandtelevision
havebroughttolifetheserobots,whichhaveservedinrolesbothevilandnoble.Althoughjustasmall
sampling, they illustrate mankind’s fascination with mechanical creatures that exhibit intelligence that
rivals,andoftensurpasses,thatoftheircreators.
1.1.3 Inventions Leading to Robotics
Thefieldofroboticshasevolvedoverseveralmillennia,withoutreferencetothewordrobotuntiltheearly
20thCentury.In270B.C.,ancientGreekphysicistandinventorCtesibusofAlexandriacreatedawater
clock,calledtheclepsydra,or“water-thief,”asittranslates.Poweredbyrisingwater,theclepsydraemployed
acordattachedtoafloatandstretchedacrossapulleytotracktime.Apparently,thecontraptionentertained
manywhowatcheditpassingawaythetime,orstealingtheirtime,thusearningitsnamesake.Bornin
Lyon,France,JosephJacquard(1752–1834)inheritedhisfather’ssmallweavingbusinessbuteventually
wentbankrupt.Followingthisfailure,heworkedtorestorealoomandintheprocessdevelopedastrong
interestinmechanizingthemanufactureofsilk.AfterahiatusinwhichheservedfortheRepublicansin
theFrenchRevolution,Jacquardreturnedtohisexperimentationandin1801inventedaloomthatuseda
seriesofpunchedcardstocontroltherepetitionofpatternsusedtoweaveclothsandcarpets.Jacquard’s
cardsystemwaslateradaptedbyCharlesBabbageinearly19thCenturyBritaintocreateanautomatic
calculator,theprinciplesofwhichlaterledtothedevelopmentofcomputersandcomputerprogramming.
Theinventoroftheautomaticrifle,ChristopherMinerSpencer(1833–1922)ofManchester,Connecticut,
isalsocreditedwithgivingbirthtothescrewmachineindustry.In1873,Spencerwasgrantedapatentfor
thelathethathedeveloped,whichincludedacamshaftandaself-advancingturret.Spencer’sturretlathe
tookthemanufactureofscrewstoahigherlevelofsophisticationbyautomatingtheprocess.In1892,
SewardBabbittintroducedamotorizedcranethatusedamechanicalgrippertoremoveingotsfroma
furnace,70yearspriortoGeneralMotors’firstindustrialrobotusedforasimilarpurpose.Inthe1890s
NikolaTesla—knownforhisdiscoveriesinACelectricpower,theradio,inductionmotors,andmore—
inventedthefirstremote-controlledvehicle,aradio-controlledboat.TeslawasissuedPatent#613.809on
November8,1898,forthisdiscovery.
Copyright © 2005 by CRC Press LLC