Robert Geisler. Russell Ellis. Thomas Moore. Solid Rocket Enabling Technologies and Milestones in the United States

29 Pages·2.823 MB·English

by  Leonard Caveny.

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JOURNALOFPROPULSIONANDPOWER
Vol.19,No.6,November–December2003
Solid Rocket Enabling Technologies
and Milestones in the United States
LeonardH.Caveny
FortWashington,Maryland20744
RobertL.Geisler
Tehachapi,California93561
RussellA.Ellis
Saratoga,California95070
and
ThomasL.Moore
ChemicalPropulsionInformationAgency,Columbia,Maryland21044
LeonardH.CavenyretiredfromtheBallisticMissileDefenseOrganization(BMDO)in1997whereheserved
asDirector,ScienceandTechnologyDirectorate.HereceivedMechanicalEngineeringB.S.andM.S.degreesfrom
GeorgiaTechandPh.D.fromUniv.ofAlabama.HeservedintheUSNavy1956–1959asEngineeringOfficer
ofaDestroyer.HissolidrocketmotorexperienceincludesThiokol’sHuntsvilleDivision(1960s),Guggenheim
LaboratoriesofPrincetonUniversity(1970s),AirForceOfficeofScientificResearch(AFOSR)inthe(1980–1984),
andStrategicDefenseInitiativeOrganizationandBMDO(1984–1997).HechairstheNationalResearchCouncil
(NRC)PaneltoevaluateproposalsonAdvancedPropulsionResearchforAFOSR.HeservesontheNRCCommittee
fortheReviewofNASA’sPioneeringRevolutionaryTechnologyProgram.Hispresentconsultingincludessolid
rocketsystems,energeticmaterials,andignition.Heauthoredover50refereedarticlesandreceived11U.S.patents.
HeisaFellowofAIAAandrecipientoftheAIAAWyldPropulsionMedal.
RobertL.GeislerreceivedaB.S.inChemicalEngineeringfromtheUniversityofCincinnatiin1958.Heworked
inthesolidrocketprogramattheAirForceRocketPropulsionLaboratory(AFRPL)for32yearsthrough1990.He
wasintimatelyinvolvedintheARPAPrincipiaprojectafterSputnikandhelpedtoestablishandconducttheAFRPL
in-houseandcontractualprogramsonsolidpropellants;hazards;surveillance,agingandmechanicalbehavior;
plumes;combustion;nozzles;andperformancepredictionandmeasurement.Hewasakeyfigureinproviding
technologybaseandsupportprogramsforMinuteman,PeacekeeperandtheTitansolidboosterprograms.Hehas
experienceinfailureinvestigationworkonmajorsolidrocketsystems;detonationhazards;aluminumcombustion
andrelatedphenomena.HerosethroughtheranksfromprojectengineertodirectoroftheVehicleSystemsdivision
wherehedirectedtheeffortsonsatellitetechnology;systemsanalysis;theNationalHoverTestFacility,Kinetic
KillVehiclesandElectricPropulsion.Nowinhis45thyearinsolidrocketryhehasworkedonmostaspectsofsolid
rocketpropulsionandservesasaprivateconsultantforanumberoforganizations.HeservesontheAIAASolid
RocketsHistorysubcommittee.HeisanAIAAAssociateFellow.
RussellA.EllisreceivedaB.A.fromColumbiaCollege,ColumbiaUniversityin1958,aB.S.inMechanical
EngineeringfromtheSchoolofEngineering,ColumbiaUniversityin1962,andaMaster’sDegreeinEngineering
AdministrationfromtheUniversityofUtahin1971.HeservedintheUSNavy1958–1961asEngineeringOfficer
ofaDestroyer.In1962hebeganwhatisnowa41-yrcareerinthesolidrocketindustry.Hisfirstnineyearswere
withThiokol/Wasatchandthenext32atChemicalSystemsDivision,PrattandWhitney,SanJose,CA.Heretired
in2003andnowisaConsultanttotheindustry.Heiswellknownforhisworkinadvancednozzlesandmaterials,
particularlyapplicationofcarbon–carbonITEsandexitconestonozzles.HeauthoredtheNASAnozzledesign
monographandhaspresentedandpublishedover50technicalpapersassociatedwithsolidrockets.Heserveson
theAIAASolidRocketsTechnicalCommitteeasamemberoftheEducationsubcommittee.HeisanAIAAFellow.
ThomasL.MoorereceivedaB.S.inMechanicalEngineeringfromWestVirginiaUniversityin1983andan
M.S.inTechnicalManagementfromTheJohnsHopkinsUniversityin2001.Hespentthefirsttenyearsofhis
careeratHercules’AlleganyBallisticsLaboratory(ABL)inRocketCenter,WestVirginia,whereheheldvarious
assignmentsintacticalmissilepropulsionandlaunchejectgasgeneratordevelopment,production,andR&D
programs.In1993,MoorejoinedtheChemicalPropulsionInformationAgency(CPIA),aU.S.Departmentof
DefenseInformationAnalysisCenteroperatedbyTheJohnsHopkinsUniversity,wherehesupervisesCPIA’s
technicalservicestothepropulsionindustry,andeditsandmaintainsseveralnationalsolidpropulsionreference
manualsanddatabases.HeiscurrentlytheDeputyDirectorofCPIA.In2001,hesuccessfullynominatedAllegany
BallisticsLaboratoryforrecognitionasaHistoricAerospaceSitebytheAIAA.Moorehasauthoredseveralsolid
rockethistorypapersandwrotetheannualSolidRocketshighlightsforAerospaceAmericamagazinefrom2000
through2003.HeisanAIAASeniorMemberandmemberoftheSolidRocketsTechnicalCommittee(SRTC).
Received7August2003;revisionreceived8September2003;acceptedforpublication9September2003.Copyright(cid:2)c 2003bytheauthors.Publishedby
theAmericanInstituteofAeronauticsandAstronautics,Inc.,withpermission.Copiesofthispapermaybemadeforpersonalorinternaluse,onconditionthat
thecopierpaythe$10.00per-copyfeetotheCopyrightClearanceCenter,Inc.,222RosewoodDrive,Danvers,MA01923;includethecode0748-4658/03
$10.00incorrespondencewiththeCCC.
1038
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TheaccomplishmentsoftheU.S.solidrocketcommunityarechronicledviadiscussionoftenenablingtechnolo-
giesandthepeopleandorganizationsthatproducedthem.Thisapproachdemonstratesthevibrantandadvancing
natureofsolidrockettechnology;tocallitahistoryimpliesarecollectionofsomethingfinished.Thepaperad-
dresseskeyeventsandtechnologyinasubstantivemannerbydefiningthemajorconcepts(e.g.,Pyrogenigniter,
largecase-bondedgrains,compositecases,FlexsealTVC,extendibleexitcone),newmaterials(e.g.,carbon–carbon,
Kevlar®)andtheadvancesintools(e.g.,hazardtests,thermochemistrytables,andstandardperformancepre-
dictionpackages)thatwerecentraltotechnologicaladvancement.Thepaperchronicleshowthesekeysenabled
incredibleadvancementsrangingfromthe260-in.spaceboostertominiaturemulti-axisdivertpropulsionsystems.
Spacelimitationspreventdiscussionofmanyinterestingconceptstestedbutnotfielded.Inviewofthecompanion
paperbyAlainDavenas,“TheDevelopmentofModernSolidPropellants”inthisissue,thispaperfocuseson
hardwareadvancements.
Introduction introducedin1956andversionsarestillbeingupgraded.Thefamous
BY 1945, the unguided powder rockets described by Morey1 andinnovativeNOTSdevelopedthefirstpassivehomingair-to-air
wereroutine.Inthispaper,thepeopleandsolidrocketmotor missile.4 [Note:Forconsistency,thenamesofDoDorganizations
(SRM)technologythatenabledmodernmissilesby1960,anden- atthetimeoftheeventortheirzenithwillbeusedindependentof
tirenewfamiliesofmissileandspaceapplicationssince1960,are theperiod,e.g.,NOTS,AFRPL,andMICOM.Unusualtermsused
chronicled.Tenmajorenablingtechnologyareas,components,or morethanonesectionaredefinedintheGlossary.]
events,havingmajorimpactsonthedirectionofmodernsolidrocket TheSpaceRacestartedwiththeadventoftheSovietlaunchofthe
propulsionandmotordesigns,areidentified.Theseenablers—all world’sfirstsatellite,Sputnik,on4October1957.Thisgaveimpetus
maturedsincethe1960s—arecategorizedintheTable.Thispaper fortheDepartmentofDefense(DoD)toproducestrategicsystems
limitsfocustohardwareadvancements,becausethecompanionpa- suchasthesilo-basedMinutemanICBMandthesubmarine-based
perbyAlainDavenas2focusesonthedevelopmentofmodernsolid PolarisFleetBallisticMissile(FBM),andforthe1958establish-
propellants,anequalcontributortotheadvancesinsolidpropellant mentandmassivefundingofNASAtoproducelargeboosters.These
rocketry. missilesandtheirsuccessorsinspiredthemassivefundingforsolid
AfterthelandmarkJATOprogramatGALCITandAerojet3 in rocket propulsion for the next four decades. Solid rocket devel-
thelate1940s,theimpetusforproducingnewsolidrocketsystems opmentprogramstookongreaterimportanceintermsofnational
wasdrivenprimarilybythecoldwar.TheUnitedStatesneededim- priority and resources in the 1960s, after the vulnerability of the
provedJATOunitstogetfully-fueledandfully-loadedB-47sinto U-2spyplanesignaledtheneedforspacesurveillancesystems.The
theair.Duringthistime(1950–1960),solidrocketsplayedamajor solidrocketindustrywascalledupontorapidlydevelopboosters
roleintheU.S.airdefensesystem.TheKoreanWarintheearlyto weighingovertentimesthatoftheMinutemanmissiletoliftnew
mid1950sprovidedrequirementstoupgradeallclassesoftheWorld generationsofsurveillancesatellites.Fromthisprogramevolvedthe
WarIIsolid-propelledweaponry.SystemsusedinKoreawereessen- workhorseTitanIII120-in.(3.05-m)diamsegmentedsolidbooster,
tiallyWW-IItechnology,e.g.,theZuniextrudeddouble-basegrains. which provided the U.S. eyes in space for over four decades and
FollowingtheKoreanWar,thisledtotherapiddevelopmentofthe pavedthewayforthecivilianspaceprogram,i.e.,NASA’sSpace
Falcon,Sparrow,andSidewinderair-to-airmissiles;thelatterwas ShuttleSRMboosters.
Along the way, the necessary empirical and analytical predic-
Table Tenenablingtechnologiesthatmaturedsince1960 tivetoolshadtobedevelopedtoenabletherapidgrowthinmotor
sizeandperformance.Aslargeastheleapfromtacticaltostrategic
1)Propellantgraintechnology solid rocket motors was, it was completely overshadowed by the
Grainandmotordesign
further leap to the even larger segmented boosters. These factors
Solidpropellantstructuralintegrity
placed emphasis on the development of modeling and simulation
2)Casetechnology
technologies,aswellastheabilitytovalidateandverifythesetools
3)Highperformancecomponenttechnology
Components withcarefully-designedandinstrumentedtests.Thesolidpropul-
IHPRPTprogram sioncommunityfacedataskakintheManhattanProjectindevel-
4)Largemotortechnology oping highly-sophisticated devices before the advent of the mod-
Largesegmentedandmonolithicboosters erncomputeranddigitalelectronics.Duringthefirstdecadeofthe
Thebigboosterearlyyears SpaceRace,thetransitionwasmadefrommechanicalcalculators
BigboostersfollowingtheSpaceRace andsliderulestomainframecomputers.Inthe1970s,pocketcal-
BigboostereffortatAFRPL
culators and mini computers (strange punched-tape devices) took
The260-in.motor
part of the computational load before desktop computers entered
5)Interceptors
thesceneinthemid1980s.Withtheaidofdigitalcomputational
Nike
SprintandHiBEX and data acquisition tools, the science of solid rocket propulsion
Patriot predictivecapabilitymaturedandbecameanimportantpartofthe
DACS story. The largest technology barrier presented by the scaling up
6)Thermochemicalmodelingandsimulationdevelopment ofsolidrocketswastoprovideanadequatethermalprotectionsys-
JANAFthermochemicaltables tematminimummass.Thethermalprotectionsystemhadtosurvive
Shiftingspecificimpulsecalculations particle-ladengasesapproaching3600Kfor60sinICBMsand120s
Solidperformanceprogram(SPP)
inlargespaceboosters.Thiswasahard-wonbattle.Earlydesigns
Combustion
were done on a cut-and-try basis; this became impractical. There
7)Higharearationozzletechnology
were other difficult problems such as the structural and ballistic
8)Air-launchedmissiletechnology
Sidewinder analysisofoffice-building-sizedcompositestructuresdesignedwith
Sparrow verylowmarginsofsafetytobelightenoughtoflyefficiently.Con-
AAMRAM queringtheseissuesrequiredteamsoftalentedpeopleworkingmany
Falcon years.
SRAM Giventheabovechallengesplusthemyriadofissuesonsafety,
9)Masteryofhazards reliability,servicelife,plumephysics,ignition,combustiontheory,
SOPHY
manufacturing quirks, and integration, it is little wonder that the
DDT,IM,andESD
rocketscientistgetsanddeservesgreatpublicrecognitionforthe
10)Smalltacticalmotortechnology
masteryofcomplextechnicalissues.
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An important historical observation is most of the tactical and
commercialsolidpropulsionsystemswouldnothavebeendevel-
oped without the national security investment in ballistic missile
and military space booster systems. The realities of national pri-
oritiestodayraisetheissuesofourabilitytocaptureandnurture
thehard-wonColdWarsolidrocketpropulsionknowledgeandto
sustainitinfuturegenerations.Thisisavolatilenationaltreasure
andtheinvestmentonthescaleofthelasthalfcenturywilllikely
neverberepeated.
Before1945:TwoWorldWars
The history and personal stories of solid rocketry before 1945
arethesubjectsofmanybooksandpapers.3−6Indeed,thelivesand
contributionsofsuchpeopleasGALCIT’s3TheodorevonKa´rma´n,
JohnW.Parsons,FrankMalina,andThiokol’s7 JosephC.Patrick
andHaroldW.Ritcheycanbefoundinmultiplevolumesandpapers.
Thispaperfocusesontheperiodafter1945andacknowledgesothers
whoseimportanttechnicalcontributions(oftenintheearlypartof
theircareers)arenotaswellnoted.
ThelateLorenMorey1ofHerculeswroteanexcellenthistoryof
thisera.HenotesthatdespitehisfameasthefatherofU.S.liquid
rocketry, Robert H. Goddard actually did some of the pioneering
workontheseearlysolidrocketsattheoutsetofWorldWarI.As
armament work languished in the U.S. between the wars, Army
Lt.LeslieAlfredSkinneroftheArmyAberdeenProvingGround
andClarenceNicholsHickman,aGoddardcoworkerandoriginal
leaderofSectionHoftheNDRC,keptthefledglingsolidrocket
program alive. The budgets rarely exceeded $10,000 per year in
thosedecades.WhenWorldWarIIarrived,thisnation’sembryonic
solidrocketprogramwasquicklyputtothetaskofdevelopingand
fieldingahostofrocket-propelledmunitions.
1945–1960:ProvingGroundforModernEra
Twopointsintimeareselectedtoassessthesolidrockettechnol-
ogy,1960and2003.Our1960snapshotcommentsonsomeofthe
keypeopleandsignificantadvancementsmadeduring1945–1960
that formed the foundation of solid rocket community. The 2003
snapshotdiscussesadvancementssince1960.Themajoradvance-
ments in fielded propulsion systems are tied to the Ten Enabling
TechnologiesintheTable.
By1960,eachoftheservicesandNASAhadmajorfull-feature
SRM (solid rocket motor) facilities and expert staffs. Prominent
among the research and development centers were: the Army
PropulsionLaboratoryatRedstoneArsenal,AlabamaandBallistic Fig.1 Mixingpropellantwasahands-onoperationin1957.Crewis
ResearchLaboratory,AberdeenProvingGround,Maryland;Naval discharginga100-gallonBaker-PerkinsmixeratThiokolElkton.The
OrdnanceTestStation,4,8ChinaLake,California;NavalOrdnance propellantispolysulfideandammoniumperchlorate.
Station,IndianHead,Maryland,theAirForceRocketPropulsion
LaboratoryatEdwardsAFB,California(establishedin1959);and 4)RocketdyneSolidRocketDivision,McGregor,Texas(initially
theNASACentersatPasadena,California(JPL),Cleveland,Ohio, operatedbyPhillipsPetroleum)
andLangley,Virginia. 5) Rohm and Haas Company’s Research Laboratories (R&H),
By1960,thecompaniesweretoolingupfortheproductionand RedstoneArsenal,Alabama16
testingoflargeboosters.Thisrequiredlargeingredientpreparation Asstated,recenthistorieshavebeenwrittenformost.Also,the
areas,mixers,curingpits,andteststandsonlargerealestate.For aspectsofsolidrocketdevelopmentsingledoutbyaprofessional
example,Fig.1illustratesalarge100-gallon(400-L)mixerofthe historianareinstructive.17
time,whichwouldsoonbesupersededbyremotely-operatedmixers
GenesisofMultistagePropulsion
10timeslarger.Threemajorsolidrocketproductioncompanieswere
infulloperationatmultiplesites: Untilthemid1950s,thesolidrocketindustrywasprimarilycon-
1) Aerojet-General Corporation,9,10 Azusa and Sacramento, sideredthesourceofpropulsionfortacticalsystemsandamixof
California soundingrockets.Whilethiswaschallengingenough,applications
2)HerculesPowderCompany,11,12Magna,UtahandRocketCen- requiring intercontinental ranges and heavy lift rapidly emerged.
ter,WestVirginianearCumberland,Maryland These requirements demanded total impulse two orders of mag-
3)ThiokolChemicalCorporation,7Elkton,Maryland,Huntsville, nitude beyond what had been demonstrated, plus highly efficient
Alabama,LonghornatMarshall,Texas,andPromontory,Utah. multi-stagestrategies.Themostprominentvisionarieswhorecog-
Theotherprominentandemergingcompaniesin1960: nized the inevitability of orbiting platforms and intercontinental
1) Atlantic Research Corporation (ARC),13,14 Alexandria and weaponswere,however,assumingliquidpropulsion.
Gainesville,Virginia Butnotallassumedliquidpropulsion.Asearlyas1954Colonel
2)UnitedTechnologyCenter,UTC(laterChemicalSystemsDi- Edward N. Hall of the USAF Western Development Division,18
vision(CSD)ofUnitedTechnologiesCorporation),Sunnyvaleand and in 1956 Rear Admiral William F. Raborn, Jr., of the Navy’s
SanJose,California Special Projects Office, had the vision of simple, quick-response
3)GrandCentralRocketCompany,15Redlands,California(later solid-rocket-poweredstrategicmissiles.By1958,thepushwason
LockheedPropulsionCompany) tomakealloftheland-andsea-basedstrategicmissilessolid-rocket
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powered.11Thepropulsionchallengesindesigninganddeveloping marizedparametricmapsofcomputerresults,e.g.,theDaileyand
these early Polaris and Minuteman missiles demanded vastly im- Wood20setsofcurvesforcompressibleflowoverarangeofspecific
proved mass fraction, burning time, thrust vectoring, motor size, heatratios.Emphasiswasplacedoncollectingandcorrelatingtest
thrusttermination,andperformance.Itwasalsonecessarytofacili- data,e.g.,nozzleerosionbymaterialandpropellanttypeoverarange
tize,staff,andeducateanewindustryasrapidlyaspossible.Theun- ofpressures.Multitudesofsuchcorrelationswereusedinthesemi-
veilingofthethree-stage,69-ft(21-m)tall,68,000-lbm(30,800-kg) empiricalapproachestoselectingcriticaldimensionsandmaterials
Minuteman missile19 at the Air Force Association Convention in foruseinincreasingly-severerocketmotorenvironments.Propri-
SanFrancisco,CaliforniainSeptember1960definedtheindustry etary versions of these correlations were the coins of the realm.
thatwasemerging.Eachofthethreestagecontractorsdevelopeda Onlythederatedvariantsweresharedinpublicforums.Aspropel-
technologicalcharacterreflectedbythethreestagestheydeveloped lantsbecamemoreenergetic,flametemperaturesincreasedandthe
for this landmark missile. Thiokol became the master of making challengesofthermalmanagementincreased.Asmotormassfrac-
largefirststageboosters,ultimatelymanifestingthemselvesinthe tionandchamberpressurewereincreasedinpursuitofmoretotal
ShuttleSRMboosters.Herculesdeftlydesignedandbuiltmotors impulse,thechallengesofcontainingandchannelingtheinternal
ofthehighesttechnologyforthirdstagesincorporatingthehighest flow were daunting. The designers were constantly forced to ac-
energynitrate-esterpropellants,thehighestmassfractioncompos- commodateregimesusinguncharacterizedadvancedmaterialsand
itemotorcases,andintricateandhighly-configuredgraindesigns fabricationtechniques.Theengineersandchemistswereneverfar
withthrustterminationportssuchasintheMinutemanthirdstage. fromtherocketmotorhardware;successfulonesacquiredakeen
Aerojet-Generalbecameasecondstagemotororganizationwitha senseforphysicalreality.
well-balancedblendofthecapabilitiesoftheothertwo.Theirinno- Evenasthepaceintheearly1960saccelerated,newengineers
vativeMinutemansecondstagedesignembodiedadualpropellant wereawedbythelegacyofthe1950s.ThetwelvevolumesofHigh
grainandatitaniumcase.ThistrendofHerculesproducingthehigh- SpeedAerodynamicsandJetPropulsion(akaThePrincetonSeries),
estperformingmotorsandThiokolthehighlyreliablelargeboosters edited by Martin Summerfield, Joseph V. Charyk, and Coleman
persistedtothe1980sthroughseveralgenerationsofmissiles,in- duP. Donaldson, are a gold mine of practical knowledge on fluid
cludingPeacekeeper,Trident,andSmallICBM.LorenMorey,then flow,combustion,heattransfer,rocketry,21etc.Muchofitstemmed
head of the Hercules long range plans office, was often heard to from WW-II research or from the researchers trained during that
remindthetroops“Herculesmakes$400suitswhiletherestofthe period.Forexample,theveryinsightfulandpracticalinformation
industrymakes$99suits.”Theyclearlymadethehigherperform- andguidelinesintheHuggett,Bartley,andMills22 paperbackare
ingproductinthosedaysanditwasacoupleofdecadesbeforethe chaptersfromRef.21.By1956,GeorgeP.Sutton’sexcellentbook23
competitorscaughtupwiththeminnitroglycerin-basedpropellants treatingthebasicelementsofpropulsionwasinitssecondedition;
andlow-margincompositecasedesigns. in 2000, the seventh edition was published, making it one of the
By1960,theneedforlargestrategicsystemsenabledthesolid all time top sellers for its publisher. In 1957, Stanford S. (Sol)
propellantindustrytoprojectitselfintothecommercialapplications Penner’s book24 provided a sound theoretical point of departure
of today. The launch of commercial payloads in the U.S. relies fortheoreticaltreatmentsofreactingflows,propellantcombustion,
on a wide array of booster and upper stage solid rocket motors. performanceprediction,plumephenomena,etc.Penner’sbookwas
Theperennialassertionssincethe1960sthatsolidsforheavylift thefirst-principlescomplementtoseveralofthechaptersinSutton’s
wouldbereplacedbyliquidshasnothappened.Boththeintrinsic book.In1960,theBarre`reandVandenkerckhove828-pagevolume25
characteristicsofsolidrocketsandthesteadyadvancementsofthe wasareminderthattheU.S.didnothavealockonanyaspectof
hardwareandpropellanttechnologyhavemaintainedsolidrocket solidrocketexpertise.
competitiveness,i.e.,thetenenablersoftheTableandthepropellants Inthe1950s,aturningpointintheprofessionalstandingofrocket
inthecompanionpaper.2 propulsionwastheeditorsofJetPropulsiontransitioningitintothe
respected, refereed Journal of the American Rocket Society (i.e.,
1960:SpaceRaceisunderway
ARS Journal). In 1963, the rocket propulsion community further
TechnicalEnvironment enhanced its professional standing by leading the merger of the
Rocketry was fun in the 1960s. The propulsion industry had a ARSandtheInstituteofAeronauticalSciences,therebycreatingthe
mandatetoclosetheMissileGap;soon,strategicbomberswould broadly-basedAIAAundertheleadershipofExecutiveSecretary
nolongerbeasufficientdeterrent.Ifyouwerenotofthattime,you James J. Harford. Theodore von Ka´rma´n continued to influence
missedtheeraoffrequentlargemotortests;nonewereroutineand the community by sustaining an environment for scholarship and
none went unanalyzed. Learning and recovery from failures was technical exchanges among the U.S. and its allies. For example,
rapid.Indeed,theDoDandNASAfeesystemincentivizedbuilding AGARD(NATO’saerospaceR&Dframework)andthePrinceton
andtestinglargenumbersofmotors.(Somewillstatethattheverb Seriesarehisinitiatives.
incentivize is the first aerospace noun-into-verb corruption of the Amemorablecommentstated“Allthatmostinternalballisticians
Englishlanguage;itcamebeforeprioritize.)Thiswasnotagood needtoknowaboutcompressibleflowisinthefirsteightchaptersof
timeforahand-wringinganalyst;programmanagerspreferredto Shapiro.”26Indeed,AscherH.Shapiro’sTable8.2-InfluenceCoef-
testratherthanwaitforonemorecalculation. ficientswassufficientlyinclusiveformostinternalflows.However,
Thesolidrocketcommunityasitexistedin1960isanexcellent manual calculation of pressures, velocities, erosive burning rates,
point of reference. Sputnik pulled the trigger starting the Space etc.alongcomplexconfigurationswastedious.Bytheearly1960,
Race, but only after introspective delays by Congress and DoD computerswerestartingtorelievethistedium.Forexample,oneof
causedpost-Sputniklayoffsinthesolidrocketcompanies.Oncethe theauthors(LHC),simplyintegrated(alongthemotoraxis)thepar-
moneystartedtoflow,newfacilitieswereerectedrapidlyandstaffs tialderivativesofShapiro’sTable8.1usingelementarynumerical
increased several fold. By 1960, the solid rocket companies had techniques(onanIBM650)toachieveaflexibleinternalballistics
already shifted into high gear. The several technologically-strong designtoolstillservingwellafterfortyyears.
organizationswiththeirrootsinthe1940s(HerculesPowderCom- In1960,keepingupwithandassessingthesolidrocketliterature
pany, Thiokol Chemical Corporation, Aerojet-General Corp., Jet wasalreadyaproblem.Afractionofitwasidealistic,ratherthan
PropulsionLaboratory,NavalOrdnanceTestStationatChinaLake, useful, for quantitative prediction and analysis. Publications that
amongothers)hadseasonedtechnicalteamsledbycompetentand obfuscatednon-intuitiveorcomplexprocesseswereplentiful.The
exactingengineersandchemists.Inthisera,digitalcomputersand artofgoingfromfirst-principleformulationstoworkingtoolsfor
instrumentswerejustbeginningtoopennewpredictivecapability. aerospaceexactnesshadtoevolverapidly.By1960,theinventoryof
Howeverthemajorityofthedetailedcalculationsofballistics,struc- accreditedtoolswasrapidlyincreasing.Thiswasatimeoflearning
turalanalysis,statisticalcorrelations,laboratorymeasurements,etc. howtomakeanalysisusefulforpredictionandcorrelation.Afew
involvedsliderulesandthenoisy,oneoneverydeskmechanicalcal- ofthesetoolsarecitedtodefinetheera,whilegivingafewpeople
culators.Theseweresupplementedbychartsandtablesthatsum- andorganizationsattributionfortheirimportantcontributions.
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OrganizationLeadersfromLeanerTimes solid-propellantmissilecalledBigStoop,signalingtheNavy’sPo-
In 1960, the solid rocket companies were led by talented and larisaspirations.SmithbecamealegendintheFBMprogramand
dedicated technologists: chief engineers, department heads, and for his management maxims, (e.g., “Deployment takes precedent
chief scientists. As evidence of the sophistication of the solid overimprovedtechnology.”),interfacecontrol,andgoaldiscipline.
rocket research and development community, the first volume of He is a prime example of how the Navy kept talented officers in
theAmericanRocketSociety(ARS)ProgressinAstronauticsand oneimportantcareerpath(solidrocketry)formajorpartsoftheir
Rocketry27wasonsolidrocketry;itsummarizedtheresultsofhigh careers.HestartedinthelabatNOTSandfollowedthesolidrocket
quality,pragmaticresearch.In1960,urgencydictatedourpace,not careerpathtoultimatelybecometheChiefofSSPO,oneofthemost
thepresent-dayconcernsovercost,process,andenvironment.The demandingtechnicaljobsintheNavy.
chiefengineerofThiokol’sHuntsvilledivision,RichardH.Wall,is In1959,theAirForcerelocatedrocketpropulsionresearchand
representativeofhiscontemporaries.Inthe1950s,despiteleanbud- developmentpersonnel(includingauthorRLG)ofthePowerPlant
gets,workingontheboundaryofsafety,andcompetitionamongthe LaboratoryatDayton,OhiototheLuehmanRidgeregionofEd-
pioneeringcompanies,nothingwaslefttochance.DickWallwas wards AFB. Thus, the Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory
exacting and anyone working for him aspired to be as exacting. (AFRPL) was founded. During this same year, Colonel Samuel
Thosewhomadethemistakeofjumpingtoaconclusionwerere- PhillipswasassignedtotheAirForceBallisticMissileDivisionas
joinedbyWall,“Areyoutellingmesomethingorareyouaskinga DirectoroftheMinutemanIntercontinentalBallisticMissilePro-
question.”Findingthecauseofflightfailuresbeforethemodernera gram.Uponassumingthatposition,helearnedthattheMinuteman
ofmanychannelsofhigh-speeddatarequiredrealdetectivework (MM)schedulehadbeenacceleratedbyayear.Phillipswastrained
andakeensenseofsolidrocketphysicalprocesses.Again,usinga asanelectricalengineerandwasadecoratedWW-IIfighterpilot.
DickWallanecdotetoillustrateapoint:asustainerin-flightfailure Hehonedhislargeprogramskillsonanincredibleseriesofsuccess-
produced12piecesofhardbutsparseevidence.Afterworkinglong fulrevolutionarysystems,includingtheB-52bomberintheearly
hoursoveraweekend,severaloftheteamdefinedaplausiblefailure 1950sandtheFalconandBOMARCmissileprograms.In1959,the
modeconsistentwith11ofthose12clues.Theywerereadytode- first tethered, vertical-launch tests of the Minuteman rocket were
claresuccessandgohome.DickWallfirmlyandswiftlyrejectedit. conductedatAFRPLbyBoeingfromundergroundtestsilos.The
Inanother12h,hisre-examinationsyieldedafailurescenariofitting previously-estimatedsixteenlaunchesneededtocompletethetest
all12cluesandconclusivelypinpointingthefailuremode.Therapid programwerereducedtoeightbyskillfulplanningandengineering.
advancesthatoccurredinthe1960saresometimesattributedtothe Shortlyaftertheseextremelysuccessfulandefficienttests,theMM
more-than-amplebudgets.Theremarkableadvanceschronicledin rocketcompleteditsdevelopmentandenteredtheAirForce’sstrate-
thispapercamefromtheleadershipoffirst-ratetechnologistsplus gicarsenal.MMwasintroducedin1962withlessfanfarethanthe
theenthusiasmofthosewhocameafterSputnik. submarine-launchedPolarisin1960;MMjoinedthecompanyofthe
The intellectual leaders of the early 1960s included people at- already-proven liquid oxygen/hydrocarbon-fueled Atlas. (General
tractedbythechallengesofrocketry.Manyoftheresearchleaders BernardSchrieverledateamthatfieldedtheAtlas,thefirstsuccess-
andscientistsweretrainedinthe1930sand1940sandmaturedin fulU.S.intercontinentalballisticmissile,in1958.)GeneralPhillips
the1940sand1950s.Manyhadthestrengthoftheirownconvictions wentontofameasDirectoroftheApolloMannedLunarProgram.
andvigorously(andsometimescolorfully)defendedtheirpositions. In November 1955, Major General John B. Medaris became
ThetechnicalexchangesamongLeonGreen,MartinSummerfield, the first commander of the newly created Army Ballistic Missile
Edward W. Price, and Norman Ryan still ring in the ears of the Agency(ABMA)atRedstoneArsenal,Alabama.Medaris,trained
youngerengineersprivilegedtobenefitfromtheirexchanges.These asamechanicalengineer,tookonawiderangeofchallengesin-
wereexchangesoninterpretationofphysicalprincipleswithgoals cludingdevelopmentandproductionoftheliquid-fueledJupiter-C
ofachievingevenmoreperformanceandreliability.Theydidnot intermediate-range ballistic missile and the weaponization of the
sufferthosewhoofferedflawedoridealizedphysics;theydisdained Redstoneballisticmissile.OntheverydaySputnikwaslaunched,
thosenotawareoftheworkofothers.Manyoftheleadersin1960 the new Secretary of Defense Neil H. McElroy was visiting the
set high, but obtainable standards and goals. Most did not waste ABMA;MedarisbriefedthattheArmycouldlaunchaU.S.satellite
their own energies considering ’blue sky’ conceptual propellants using the Jupiter-C launch vehicle in a few months if told to go
andmotordesigns. ahead.Underhisenergeticleadership,coupledwiththevonBraun
team, the Army began its several pioneering accomplishments in
MilitaryLeadersAchieveProminence thespacearena.
DuringtheclosetheMissileGapcrisisfollowingSputnik,eachof TheJupiterC(renamedJunoIbyJPLforthesatellitelaunchcon-
themilitaryserviceshadwell-seasonedleaderswhobecameiden- figuration)consistedofamodifiedRedstoneliquidrockettopped
tified with large solid rocket systems. All of these Flag Officers by three solid-propellant upper stages composed of fifteen 6-in.
hadperspectivethattranscendedtechnology.Inthelate1950s,both (152-mm)diamScaleSergeantmotorsmanufacturedbyJPL.28(The
the Army and the Air Force long range missile programs had to JPLScaleSergeantmotorswerefromaformersoundingrocketpro-
overcome the strong biases of their liquid rocket heritages. The gramandwerenotrelatedtothelarger,31-in.(787-mm)diam,tac-
SubmarineNavyhadlesstoovercome;thestorabilityofsolidswas ticalSergeantmissilemotorlaterdevelopedbyThiokolHuntsville).
compelling. TheScaleSergeantused22kgofammoniumperchlorate/Thiokol
On25September1945,theBureauofOrdnance(BuOrd)Chief LP-33polysulfidepropellant.Thesecondstagewascomposedof
formallynotifiedNDRCoftheNavy’sdefiniteneedfortheABL anouterringofelevenScaleSergeants;thethirdstagewasacluster
facilitiesthathadbeenoperatedbyGeorgeWashingtonUniversity ofthreeScaleSergeantsgroupedwithinthatring.Thefourthstage
forwartimeweaponsresearch.TheWarDepartmentsubsequently wasasingleScaleSergeantcontainingamoreenergeticpropellant
transferredownershipofthepropertytotheNavy,andtheHercules formulationandwaspermanentlyattachedtotheExplorerIsatel-
PowderCompanyofWilmington,DelawareacceptedaBuOrdcon- lite.Thespinstabilizationinducedradialloadsof180g,requiring
tracttooperateABL.ThedealforHerculestocontinueoperations thefirst-everspinningstatic-testfixturetovalidateperformanceand
atABLwasbrokeredbynoneotherthanCommander(laterVice motorintegrity.Indeed,on31January1958solidrocketupperstages
Admiral)LeveringSmith,HeadoftheBuOrdRocketPropellantRe- insertedtheveryfirstU.S.satelliteintoorbit!However,theineffi-
searchandDevelopmentDivision,andwartimecolleagueofRalph cientclusteringofsmallrocketsdeliveringlessthat210sofIspmade
E.GibsonandAlexanderKossiakoff.BothGibsonandKossiakoff clear the opportunity to progress via new enabling technologies.
wereprewaracademicswhofoundedABLandwentontobecome Fromthismajorsuccess,theSRMcommunitygainedmomentum
directorsofJHU/APL.LittledidSmithknowthathisroleinpre- forthemissileraceandsoon-to-be-fieldedimprovedupperstages.
servingABLwouldbeofsubstantialbenefittothePolarisfleetbal- On16January1958,DoDannouncedthenewsolidpropellant
listicmissileprogramthathewouldleadtenyearslater.Smith,as missilePershingastheRedstonereplacement.TheMartinCompany
acommanderatNOTS,participatedindevelopinga50-ft(15.2-m) ofOrlando,Floridawasawardedalettercontracton28March1958
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forresearch,development,andinitialproductionofthePershing.By through-bulkhead initiators were key steps in the development of
March1958,MedarisbecameresponsibleforallArmyOrdnance safeandrobustignitionsystems.ImplementationoftheEBWtech-
programsintherocket,guidedandballisticmissile,andspacefields. nologytoigniteapyrotechnicsequenceenabledigniterdesignersto
InJanuary1958,theNationalSecurityCouncilassignedthehighest moreconfidentlyavoidaccidentalignitionduetoextraneouselec-
nationalprioritytotheNike-ZeusAntimissileMissiledevelopment tromagneticexcitations,e.g.,radar.Typically,EBWinitiatorsapply
program.IntheMedarisenvironment,bothPershingandNike-Zeus 1–2Jatupto3000Vtoexplodeasmall-diameter(0.025-mm)gold
flourished.ThefirstPershinglaunchwasconductedon25February orplatinumwirewithalengthof1.5–2.5mm.Theresultingthermal
1960; the Pershing was first deployed in August 1963. Medaris energysuddenlyignitesaninsensitivepyrotechnic,which,inturn,
retiredfromtheArmyon31January1960.Hisdedicatedeffortsin ignitestheprimerpropellantintheignitersequence.Oneofthebig
engineeringrelatedtoguidedmissiledevelopment,aswellashis advantagesofathrough-bulkheadinitiator(TBI)isthatitisanon-
worktocreatepublicunderstandingofSpaceAgechallengesand electricdeviceandtherefore,isnotsubjecttothepotentialhazards
promises,markedhimasoneofthenation’sleadingauthoritieson associatedwithtypicalelectroexplosivedevices.ATBIconsistsof
theevolvingU.S.spaceprogram. ametalbodywithahighstrengthbulkheadinthecenterandex-
plosivechargesonbothsidesofthebulkhead.Asmallchargeofa
secondaryexplosiveservesasthedonorandtheoutputsidehasa
TechnologyLeaders
similarchargetoserveasthereceptor(plussomeheat-producing
In 1960, several hundred people deserved the title technology
pyrotechnicmaterial).Initiationisachievedbycouplingaconfined
leader.Intheparagraphsandanecdotesthatfollow,onlyafraction
detonatingcord,suchasmild-detonatingfuse(MDF),totheTBI.
aresingledout.Thosereceivingrecognitiontendtobethosewith
The MDF is initiated by a detonator contained in an out-of-line
openliteraturepublicationandlonginvolvementintheprofessional
safe-and-armdevice.
societies.Othertechnologyleadersaremostlyknownonlybytheir
EllisM.Landsbaumspenthisearlyyears(1955–1961)asaflow
coworkersbecauseofthenatureoftheirworkoritsclassification.In-
and combustion specialist37 at JPL. He joined the newly-formed
deed,manyexcellentpapersintheJANNAFproceedingsarecaught
Aerospace Corp in 1961. Landsbaum soon became the corporate
upinthedeclassificationbacklogsandcannotbereferenced.
memory for the myriad of Air Force solid rocket motors ranging
Probablythemostusefulrocketmotordesignempiricalrelation
fromtheoriginalTitan-IIItothemostmodernEELVsandthelarge
isDonaldR.Bartz’s291957predictorofnozzleconvectiveheating.
familyofapogeekickmotors.Hecontinuesinhissixthdecadeof
In2003,hiscorrelationisstillareferenceforcomparison.Bartz,of
correlatingandexplainingrocketmotorphenomenaandsolvingkey
JPL,startedwithafamiliarNusseltnumberrelationforturbulent
issuesrelatingtotheAirForceboosterprograms.38,39
convectioninpipes,incorporatedsimplerelationshipstoapproxi-
Allthroughthe1940s,variousformsofinstability(e.g.,acoustic
mate transport properties and correlated them with heat flux data
modesproducing1–6MPa(145to870psi)overpressure)plagued
measuredinliquidrockets.
solidrockets.Overcomingtheseproblemsoftenrequiredtheart(the
Inthe1950s,Aerojethadanumberofperennialcontributorsto
practiceoftendidnotqualifyasascience)ofperformance-robbing
the research literature. Leon Green, Jr.,30 (later at Aeronutronic)
mechanicalsolutionssuchasresonancerods,drilledholesalongthe
publishedaseriesoftechnicalpapersandnotesthataddressedthe
grain,andcast-inbaffles.Intuitiveandineffectivefixeswereplenti-
issues confounding interior ballisticians. The practical guidelines
ful,butunderstandingofthedrivingprocesswaslacking.FrankT.
heprovided,includingsuchobservationsasthecouplingbetween
McClure,40 RobertW.Hartandtheirco-workersatJohnHopkins
motorinternalgeometryandsmallvariationsinburningrate,were
UniversityAppliedPhysicsLaboratory(APL)wereamongthefirst
immediately useful. Green’s relatively uncomplicated experimen-
to address acoustic instability by applying the essential physics.
tal rocket motors were instrumented to provide correlatable data.
APLassumedanationalleadershiprole41 withrespecttonational
Richard D. Geckler, W. Hoyt Anderson, Richard F. Chaiken, and
coordination.The1960workinggroupwasagoodrepresentation
coworkerstackledawiderangeofpracticalproblems,e.g.,Refs.31,
of the 1950 to 1960 aerothermodynamics leadership. Their 1960
32,and33.
conclusionsweresound.Areaderisstruckbythe1960statement
By 1955, Richard P. King and Joseph E. Pelham, Thiokol
advisingrelativelysimplemodelsbedevelopedprimarilytoindicate
Huntsville, demonstrated the important concept of using a small
thedirectionarocketmotor“parametershouldbevariedinorder
rocket motor to ignite a much larger rocket motor. By 1958, the
toenhancestability”(Ref.41,page34).Theywarned,“inviewof
term Pyrogen34 was coined. The Pyrogen designs anticipated the
thecomplexityandvarietyofthephenomena...realistictheoreti-
needtoignitemotorsinspaceandtouniformlyignitelargelength-
calanalysisisoutofthequestion.”Theirlastsectionadvocatesthe
to-diametermotors.
commonsenseapproachofquantitativeexperimentscloselycou-
Intheearly1950s,EdwardW.Price,NOTS,beganpublishinga
pledwiththeory.Thisisinstarkcontrasttothepost-2000trendto
seriesofpapersaddressinginternal flowwithmassaddition(i.e.,
evermorecomplexnumericalsimulationsandfewerrocketexperi-
the flow channel wall is burning propellant) and combustion in-
ments.Somewilllooknofurthertoexplaintherapidadvancesmade
stability. He attempted to integrate burning rate relationships and
between1950and1970.
toaddressdesignconsiderations.Reference35isrepresentativeof
In a conversation between Martin Summerfield and Frank
thiswork.Theseusefulpapersdefinedthemechanismsofpressure
McClurebeforea1970meetingatAPL,McClureaskedSummer-
dropsandlossesandattemptedtoprescribedesignprocedures.To
fieldwhatresearchcaughthisattention.Summerfieldrespondedby
someextent,thecomplicationspointedoutinthePricepaperswere
includingnon-steadyburningandcombustioninstabilityinhislist.
animpetusforthedevelopmentofnumericalsolutionscapableof
McClurethenquestionedSummerfieldinanefforttolearnafterall
accommodatingthemoregeneralboundariesandburningratelaws.
thoseyears(i.e.,10)whatwaslefttodo.FinallyMcClureclosedoff
The1960digitalcomputers(e.g.,IBM650)couldhandlethemore
thediscussionwiththewords,“Icannotimaginethatworkingon
generalformulationsandledtonewinternalballisticdesigntools.
thoserefinementsissatisfying.”Thiswasoneofthefewtimesthat
Barnet R. Adelman and David Altman led United Technology
Summerfieldwasobserved(byLHC)tobebestedincollegialchat.
Center (later CSD) to success with large segmented solid rocket
McCluretoldSummerfieldsomethingheknewverywell,i.e.,too
boosterdevelopmentfortheTitanIIIsystem.Adelman,whileDi-
muchrefinementtakesresearchersbeyondthedeterministicpartof
rectorofVehicleEngineeringfortheRamo-WooldridgeCorpora-
theproblem.Indeed,manyofthechiefengineersin1960weremas-
tioninthemid1950s,wasaleadingproponentforsolid-propellant-
tersofachievingtherightmixoffirst-principletheory,empiricism,
poweredballisticmissiles.Hispersistentadvocacywascentralto
andphysicalinsighttosucceedonthefrontiersofrocketry.
Minuteman being powered by solid propellant. David Altman’s
propulsion career spans from JPL in 1945 to attracting national
attention for hybrid propulsion in 2003 as Consulting Professor, CPIAandJANNAF
StanfordUniversity. Any overview of U.S. rocketry must acknowledge CPIA and
The pioneering work of Samuel Zeman and Arlin Graves36 on JANNAF.TheChemicalPropulsionInformationAgency(CPIA),
explodingbridgewires(EBWs)andassociatedcomponentssuchas established in 1962, evolved from the earlier Solid Propellant
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1044 CAVENYETAL.
Information Agency (SPIA). Industry technical exchange activi- palconsultantstotheNavySSPOandhadamajorimpactonthe
ties were first chartered under the Interagency Chemical Rocket FBMprogram.
PropulsionGroup(ICRPG)in1962andbecamethecurrentJoint In1949,ArchC.ScurlockandArthurSloanstartedAtlanticRe-
Army-Navy-NASA-Air Force (JANNAF) Interagency Propulsion search Corporation (ARC) in downtown Washington to work on
Committeein1970.CPIA,operatedbyTheJohnsHopkinsUniver- athree-monthpropulsionresearchcontractfromtheNavy,aspart
sity,istheadministrativearmofJANNAF.Thereporting,archiving, of Project Squid. The ARC corporate and technical achievement
standardization,andcoordinatingfunctionsofthesecoupledorga- historieswererecentlydocumented.13,14Theirmid1950squarterly
nizations contribute directly to U.S. successes and, indirectly, to reportsincludetheverythoroughresearchonincreasingtheburn-
worldwidetechnology.ThecollegialJANNAFprocessisthekeyto ingratesofend-burningmotorsbyincludingaxialwires,e.g.,silver.
industrycooperationoncommontechnicalissues,anditsworking In1963,someofpatentsonthistechnologywereissuedpursuant
groupsandworkshopssustainessentialperennialworkingrelation- topreviously-submittedapplicationsplacedundersecrecyorders.43
ships.U.S.specialistscangetinsyncwithsystemdevelopmentsat Thewiredend-burnersstemmingfromthiseraarestilloperational.
theJANNAFPropulsionMeetingsheldinniceplaces;theconsensus Among the most notable accomplishment in ARC’s first decade
mostmemorableisInclineVillage,Nevadain1978. wastheCharlesB.HendersonandKeithE.Rumbelbreakthrough
of jumping from 5% aluminum (then considered an upper limit)
TheCompanies loading to 15–20%. They formulated denser, more energetic pro-
ThetangiblestrengthsoftheU.S.solidrocketcommunityarein pellants that efficiently burned aluminum. Their work anticipated
the hundreds of aerospace companies, i.e., the prime contractors, theinsightfulT∗conceptasdescribedbyWalterE.Baumgartnerof
propulsion companies, propellant ingredient manufacturers, case LockheedPropulsionCompany,44i.e,Doestheformulationwithout
fabricators, specialty houses, and support contractors, to name a Alproduceaflametemperature(T∗)sufficienttoignitetheAl?
few.Thecompetitionamongthem,andthepursuitofexcellenceto ChemicalSystemsDivision(CSD)ofUnitedTechnologiesCor-
meetthenationalneed,moldedacommunityoftechnologists,either poration(nowPrattandWhitneySpacePropulsionSanJose)was
fiercecompetitorsorgoodpartners,dependingontheteaming.In formedbyBarnetR.Adelman,HerbertLawrence,andDavidAlt-
thispaper,afewofthoseinvolvedarementioned.Asdiscussed,the man in 1958 as United Research Corporation of Menlo Park. In
heritageandpersonalitiesofseveralofthepropulsioncompaniesare 1959,thecompanybecamepartofUnitedAircraftCorporationand
relativelywelldocumentedandknown,e.g.,AerojetandThiokol. wasrenamedUnitedTechnologyCenter.Inthissameyear,retired
Byanecdoteandexample,afewlesser-knowninsightsareoffered. Lt.Gen.DonaldPuttjoinedthecompany.Thespecificgoalofthe
ThebirthofthechemicalpropulsionbusinessatHerculeswasa company was the development of large segmented solid rockets.
monumentalstepforthecompanyandthesolidrocketcommunity. CSD became known initially for its success in development and
In March of 1958, Hercules was at a crossroads with a declining productionofthesegmented120-in.(3.05-m)boostersfortheTitan
commercial explosive business and the prospect of rapid growth III-CandIV-Alaunchvehicles.Insubsequentyears,CSDisconsid-
intherocketpropulsionarea.Theirexperiencewithmanufacturing eredaleadinginnovatorintheSRMindustrywithsuchnoveldevices
solidrocketswasasanoperatorofDoDfacilities.Atthatjuncture, astheTechroll®fluidbearingandhotball-and-socketthrustvector
theyreorganizedtobecomeanindependentproducerformilitary control(TVC),bolt-extrusionthrusttermination,andthesupersonic
and civilian space programs. Their explosives department estab- splitlineflexsealnozzle.CSDisknownfornumerousfirstsinthe
lishedanewChemicalPropulsionDivisionwithLymanBonnerof SRMindustryincludingthefirstproductionuseofcarbon–carbon
the Allegany Ballistics Laboratory (ABL) as director of develop- ITEsandEECs,thefirstuseofKevlar® forcases,developmentof
ment.Underhisvisionarydirectionandzeal,thisoperationtookoff the first redundant drive electromechanical actuator, and the first
withmanagement’sguidanceto“thinkbig.”11ThebrilliantBonner electromechanicalliquidinjectionvalves.
wasanexpertinrocketpropellantdesignanddevelopment,interior Notallthemajorrocketcompaniessurvivedtothe1980s.In1954
ballistics, spectroscopy, and molecular structure. At Hercules, he theGrandCentralRocketCompany15occupiedasitenearRedlands,
wastechnicaldirectorofABLfrom1945to1955,anddirectorof California.ItwasfoundedandledbyCharlesE.Bartley,whogained
developmentintheexplosivesandchemicalpropulsiondepartment hissolidrocketexperienceduringhisGALCITinvolvements.22One
from1955to1965.DuringWorldWarII,hereceivedtheNavy’s of their first big contracts was from the Martin Company for the
highestcivilianhonor,theDistinguishedPublicServiceAward,for thirdstageoftheVanguardrocket,18-in.(0.46-m)indiameterwith
developingnewpropellantsforrocketsandguidedmissiles.With 1066kgofcompositepropellant.On17March1958,theVanguard
thisauspiciousstart,Herculesbecameoneofthemajormanufac- insertedaU.S.satelliteintoorbitusingasolidpropellantfinalstage.
turersofballisticmissilesforalloftheservices. By1961,thecompanywasrenamedLockheedPropulsionCompany
A key technological challenge for Hercules was to develop ef- afterpurchasebyLockheed.Theyhadseveralsuccessfulprograms
fectivedesignsandprocessestomanufacturepropellantgrainsfor andseveralnearsuccessesastheycompetedforthelargebooster
larger and faster rockets. The existing extrusion process limited contracts.Employmentpeakedat1,600,butafteraseriesofdifficult
grainstotheavailablepresssize.AnewprocessbasedontheNDRC projects,e.g.,SRAM,thecompanywasdisbandedin1976andmuch
Division8researchofJohnF.KincaidandHenryM.Shueyatthe ofitsequipmentsoldtoSouthKorea.
Bureau of Mines’ Bruceton Research Laboratory near Pittsburgh During its short tenure, the Rohm and Haas Research Labora-
provided the opportunity to answer the challenge. The new cast tories, Redstone Arsenal, Alabama had perhaps the strongest per
double-basepropellantmanufacturingprocessconsistedoftreating capitatechnicalteamintheindustry.ItwasthehomebaseofHenry
nitrocellulosegranules(castingpowder)withasolvent(principally M.Shuey,therenownedadvisortoDoD.R&Hoperatedamodern
nitroglycerin),aplasticizer,andastabilizer,thenheatingandcuring Army-owned facility from 1949 to 1971.16 Its peak employment
theresultingmixturetoformahomogeneousmassthatcouldthenbe was 300. Its initial charter involved propulsion for small tactical
castintomoldsandcuredtomakelargediametergrainsofso-called systems, e.g., shoulder-fired weapons such as the Light Assault
NC/NGpropellant.Whereasthelargestextrudedgraintothatdate Weapon (LAW). However, the talented R&H staffs were quickly
atABLwas6in.(150mm)indiameter,thefirstcastdouble-base assignedsomeofthemorechallengingaspectsofprogramssuchas
grainhadadiameterof16in.(400mm).Castdouble-basegraincon- Nike-Zeus,Hawk,Pershing,andSprint.Segmentsoftheiranalyti-
figurations,andthesizethereof,seeminglyhadnopracticalupper calcapabilitywereamongthebestintheindustry,andmuchofit
bounds.Intricategeometricalgrainconfigurationspermittedahigh wasmadeavailabletotheindustryviatheirquarterlyreports.They
degreeofballistictailoring.42Bothmenwentontobecomepillarsof succeededadmirablyintheirassumedroleofconsultanttoindustry.
theindustryinthefieldsofpropellantsandhazards.Kincaidbecame Oneoftheauthors(LHC)benefitedgreatlybyhismanyvisitsto
anUndersecretaryofCommerceintheKennedyadministrationand R&Htolearnthetechniquesreferredtointhequarterlieswritten
ShueywaspartoftheseniormanagementoftheRohmandHaas byStanleyE.Anderson,WilliamH.Groetzinger,WilliamC.Stone,
ResearchLaboratories,RedstoneArsenal,andanationalleaderon Charles E. Thies, et al. R&H had one of the strongest advanced
ballistics,performance,hazards,andsafety.Bothmenwereprinci- energetic-materialssynthesisgroups.Theyquicklybecamemasters
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ofdevices45andmicro-motors46forevaluationusingsmallamounts productsintheearlydayswereordnanceitemsincludingsmokeand
(∼10g)ofnovelpropellantsofuncertainstability.The1970dis- teargasgrenades,thermites,bombs,andmortars.
persal of the R&H expert staff was a boost for many aerospace ArmyColonelCarrollD.Hudson(aStanfordUniversity-trained
organizations. mechanicalengineer)wasthefirstCommandingOfficeroftheRed-
stoneOrdnancePlant.Heserved25September1941to1October
1943.Between30November1948and7May1952,ColonelHudson
AcademicInstitutions
againservedasCommandingOfficerofwhatwasthenrenamedthe
The Navy’s Project SQUID, initiated in 1946, was DoD’s first
RedstoneArsenal.
broadly-basedscienceprogramforjetpropulsion.Eventhoughonly
On28October1949theSecretaryoftheArmytransferredthe
afractionrelatedtosolidrockets,itstimulatedinterestandsustained
OrdnanceResearchandDevelopmentDivisionSub-office(Rocket)
many university propulsion researchers though the 1950s. By the
atFortBliss,TexastoRedstoneArsenal.Amongthosetransferred
mid1960sseveraluniversitieshadfirst-ratesolidrocketexperimen-
were Wernher von Braun and his team of German scientists and
talresearchcapabilities,e.g.,thoseatCaltech-JPL,theMauriceJ.
technicians,whocametotheUnitedStatesunderOperationPaper-
Zucrow-ledJetPropulsionCenteratPurdueUniversity,theMartin
clipduring1945and1946.WiththearrivaloftheFortBlissgroup,
Summerfield-led Solid Propellant Group at Princeton University,
RedstoneArsenalofficiallyenteredthemissileera.Theperioddat-
andtheNormanW.Ryan-ledCombustionLaboratoryattheUni-
ingfromJanuary1950toAugust1962wasatimeofoutstanding
versity of Utah. The DoD basic research agencies (ARO, ONR,
successfortheArmy’srocketandmissileprograms.Itwasalsothe
AFOSR,andARPA)andNASAsupporteddozensofsolid-rocket-
periodduringwhichtheArmymadeitsmostnotablecontributions
relatedresearchprogramsinuniversities.Thelargerprogramsin-
tothenation’sspaceeffort.Leadersofthesolidrocketprogramin
cludedseveralprofessorsandseniorstaff,technicians,andfivetoten
thiseraincludedMarvinHallandNilesWhite.Thelatterwasaver-
graduatestudents.Propellantsweremadeandmotorsorlaboratory
satilesolidrocketexpertwhoalsomanagedanddirectedthehighly-
devicesloadedandtested.Fromthoseprogramscameprofession-
productiveRohmandHaasandThiokolHuntsvilleArmycontracts.
als such as John R. Osborn, J. Michael Murphy, Ronald L. Derr,
This relationship started in April 1949 when the Elkton Division
HermanKrierandR.H.W.Waesche,whobygraduationwerepre-
oftheThiokolCorporation,locatedatElkton,Maryland,signedan
pared,bytheirnationalparticipation,tobepartofthecommunity
Armycontracttoresearchanddeveloprocketpropellants.Thisac-
andtoquicklytakealeadershiprolesinpracticalprograms.Dur-
tivitymovedtoRedstoneArsenal,whereitbeganoperationinJune
ingthe1970sotheracademicinstitutionsestablishedsolidrocket
1949.On3March1951theRedstoneArsenalCommandingOfficer
laboratories, for example, Kenneth K. Kuo at Pennsylvania State
brokegroundforthe$1.5millionJosiahC.GorgasLaboratoryfor
University;BenT.Zinn,WarrenC.Strahle,andEdwardW.Priceat
RohmandHaas,thearsenal’ssolidpropellantresearchcontractor.
theGeorgiaInstituteofTechnology;andRoyE.Reichenbachand
General McMorrow became the first Commanding General of
DavidW.NetzerattheNavalPostgraduateSchool.Manyinnova-
MICOMon5June1962.Heservedinthatcapacityuntilhisdeathon
tiveandpracticallaboratorytechniquesandimprovementsstemmed
24August1963.Laterthatyear,thenewresearchanddevelopment
fromtheacademicinstitutions.47
facility was dedicated to his memory, the Francis J. McMorrow
Missile Laboratory. In the early 1960s MICOM was part of the
DoDLaboratories
majorARPAProjectPrincipiatoadvanceenergeticmaterialsand
The propulsion laboratories of the three Services are the glue managedseveralofthemajorprograms.
thatholdstheU.S.SRMcommunitytogether.Theirrequirements DevelopmentofthePershing,anintermediaterangeballisticmis-
andeffortshaveguidedtheindustryfordecadesinmanytechnical sileusingtwosolidrocketstages,startedon16January1958.The
areas.Theirin-houseresearchprogramsoftenuseduniquefacilities Army led the way in solid rocket missile and aircraft interceptor
toaccomplishresearchanddevelopmentofbroadinterest.Manyof technologies in the 1960s. In this regard, the MICOM program
thesetopicsarecoveredinthisandtheDavenaspaper.2 Inrecent focused on high-burning-rate propellant technology for the Nike,
years,alloftheDoDpropulsionlaboratoriesfollowedtheindustry SprintandSpartanprograms.Thiseffortwanedinthe1970swith
trendofreducedresources,whilestrivingtomaintaincapabilityto theexceptionoftheairdefensessystems,whichevolvedintothe
design, qualify, and build new and advanced tactical, space, and HawkandPatriotmissiles.MICOMhasbeenaleaderinexhaust-
strategicsolidrocketsystems.ThemostprominentSRMcenterfor plume-visibilitytechnology;theydevelopedthefirstsmoketunnel
eachserviceissingledoutwhilerecognizingotherDoDlaboratories toscientificallystudythisproblem.BillyJ.WalkerofMICOMhas
alsomademanysignificantcontributions. also been a leader in plume-radiation code developments such as
theSIRRMcode.TheMICOMhasalsobeenaleaderintheimpor-
tantfieldofsolid-rocket-relatedInsensitiveMunitionsasmentioned
ArmyPropulsionLaboratory(MICOM)
elsewhereinthisarticle.TheMICOMtechnologysupportedthede-
TheArmyRedstoneArsenalinnorthernAlabamatogetherwith
velopment of a host of other well known solid rockets including
related local organizations became the birthplace of much of the
the Chaparral, Corporal, DART, Dragon, Entac, Hellfire, Honest
Army solid rocket program. The Army MICOM (Missile Com-
John,Javelin,Lacrosse,LittleJohn,MultipleLaunchRocketSys-
mand)alongwithRohmandHaasandThiokol’sHuntsvilledivision
tem(MLRS),Patriot,Redeye,Sergeant,Stinger,andTube-launched
formedthepowerfulandproductiveHuntsvilletriumvirateinU.S.
Optically-trackedWire-guided(TOW).
solidrocketry.[Note:Importantsegmentsofthe1950sRedstoneAr-
senalsolidrockethistoryareinErnestS.Sutton’sprivatelyprinted
“How a Tiny Laboratory in Kansas City Grew into a Giant Cor- AirForceRocketPropulsionLaboratory(AFRPL)
poration:AHistoryofThiokolandRockets,1926–1996,”January, TheMovetotheDesert:Fromitsformationin1947untilSputnik
1997.Reference7summarizespartsofit.] in1957,theAirForcehadasinglePropulsionLaboratorylocated
The facility was born because of escalating global tensions in atWright–PattersonAFB,Dayton,Ohio,whichwasprincipallyde-
the1940s.CongressapprovedfundsinApril1941fortheArmyto votedtoair-breathingpropulsion.Therocketgroupwaspartofa
construct another facility to supplement production at Edgewood small branch with the forward-looking name: The Non-Rotating
Arsenal,theChemicalWarfareService’sonlychemicalmanufac- EngineBranch,whichencompassedallAFsolid,liquid,andramjet
turingplant.TheselectedsitebecameknownasHuntsvilleArsenal. propulsion R&D. The early solid propellant work was limited to
ThefirstCommandingOfficerofHuntsvilleArsenal,ColonelRollo JATOs,jetenginestartercartridgesandair-launchedrocketssuch
C.Ditto,brokegroundfortheconstructionofthe160-acrefacilityon astheFalconGuidedAirRocket(GAR)series.Therewasalsowork
4August1941.Recognizingtheeconomyoflocatinganordnance onarocket-assisted-take-offmotorfortheBOMARC,Mace,and
assemblyplantclosetoHuntsvilleArsenal,theChiefofOrdnance Matadorpilotlessbombers,whichwereessentiallyearlyturbojet-
built a facility adjacent to the Chemical Warfare Service’s instal- powered surface-to-surface cruise missiles. The solid rocket in-
lation.InitiallyknownasRedstoneOrdnancePlant,theplantwas houseprogramatWPAFBwaslimitedtooccasionaltestsofJATO
redesignatedRedstoneArsenalon26February1943.Theprincipal sizedrocketswith100lbm(45kg)orlessofpropellant.Meanwhile,
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1046 CAVENYETAL.
in1958,theMinutemandevelopmenteffortsattheWesternDevel- TheseincludetheBallisticAnalysisandTestSystem(BATES)se-
opmentDivisionunderGeneralShrieverwereblossoming.Adecree ries of solid rocket performance test motors, precision static test
wasissuedbyMaj.Gen.J.W.Sessums,Commander,Headquarters stands, and the CHAR and HIPPO nozzle materials test motors.
AirResearchandDevelopmentCommand(towhomalloftheAF Thesemotorsweredesignedtobeanalyzabletothegreatestdegree
laboratoriesreported)tomovetheDaytonrocketgrouptoaremote possible and have reasonable fidelity in the test conditions com-
65-square-mileareaattheEdwardsAFBAirForceFlightCenterin paredtooperationalmotors.Alsonotablearethe1-42altitudetest
theMojaveDesertofCalifornia. facility and the 1-36D high hazards explosive test area, the latter
Thereasonfortherelocationwasclearandsuccinctasstatedina sitedfor1millionlbm(454,000kg)ofTNT.Thelabalsopioneered
letter48dated10April1959fromLt.Gen.RoscoeC.Wilson,Head- manypropellantformulationandingredientevaluationeffortsinits
quartersUSAF,toMaj.Gen.Sessums.Thelettercitedtheneedfor 1-30PropellantEvaluationFacility.Themorespectacularlargesolid
astrongAirForcecapabilityinrocketpropulsionwiththeprimary rocketteststandshavegainednotorietywithtestsupportactivities
objectiveofretainingthemaximumdegreeofAirForceinfluence forMinuteman,TitanIII,TitanIV,SRMU,andPeacekeeper.From
andparticipationintheone-million-lbf(∼4,500kN)thrustengine theearlydaysoftheSpaceDefenseInitiativeOrganization(SDIO),
development,togetherwithcooperationonalltheARPAandNASA AFRPLbuiltandoperatedtheNationalHoverTestFacilitywhere
propulsionprograms.Relatedjustification49citedtheremotenessof LightweightExoAtmosphericProjectile(LEAP).typevehicleshave
thesiteanditsproximitytothewesterncontractorsandAirForce beendemonstrated.
Project Offices engaged in missile development. A follow-up di- AFRPL became an early leader in plume technology; thermo-
rectivefromColonelMcKee,Headquarters,AirResearchandDe- chemistry;performanceprediction;mechanicalbehavior,aging,and
velopmentCommand(ARDC)setanoperationaldateofnolater surveillance;combustion;explosivehazards;propellantformulation
than1September1959.Theplanrequiredatechnicalorganization and ingredient synthesis; high temperature nozzle and insulation
capableofguidingtheAirForcerocketpropulsionappliedresearch materials;extendibleexitcones;compositecases;andTVC.Inre-
program,togetherwithdevelopmentofthecaptive-testcapability centyears,AFRPLisamajorplayerintheIntegratedHighPayoff
to evaluate rocket engines, associated components, and complete RocketPropulsionTechnology(IHPRPT)solidrocketandmaterials
ballisticmissilesystems.Themanpowerallocationwasatotalof programsdescribedlater.
250militaryandcivilianpersonnel.TheDaytonrocketgrouprepre-
sentedthenucleusoftheexistingUSAFcapabilityinrocketengine ChinaLakePropulsionLaboratories(NOTS)
appliedresearch,soeveryeffortwasmadetotransferthemintact. About80milesduenorthoftheAFRPLintheMojaveDesertof
ColonelHaroldNortonwascommandingofficeroftheexisting CaliforniaisChinaLake,thehomeofoneoftheoldestandmost
rocket test contingent at Edwards AFB, which had been growing productivegovernmentpropulsionlaboratories.Itispresentlycalled
since1952.50 Ofthe127peopletransferredfromDayton,Colonel theNavalAirSystemsCommandWeaponsDivision(NASCWD).
Harold Robbins was the ranking officer and Donald M. Ross the Itwasalsoknown,inrecenttimes,astheNavalAirWarfareCenter
leadingcivilian.ThenewRocketR&DGroupatEdwardsAFBim- (NAWC)WeaponsDivision,buttoallwhoknowhershewillalways
mediatelyfunctionedasalaboratoryanddesiredtheprestigeofthe beNOTS(NavalOrdnanceTestStation).Therewasnolarge-scale
title“AirForceRocketPropulsionLaboratory(AFRPL)”reporting military rocket program in the U.S. until 1941 when Charles C.
directlytotheARDC,asdidotherAFlaboratories.Col.Robbins LauritsenoftheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology(Caltech)prod-
andDonRosshadtheirstaffartistdesignalogoandletterheadfor dedtheNavytoaction,8 andthemainrocketeffortoftheU.S.in
AFRPLstationery,andtheypurchasedtworeamsofit.Secretaries WW-IIbegan.In1943,adequatefacilitieswereneededfortestand
weretoldtousethenewstationeryforallcorrespondence,except evaluationofrocketsbeingdevelopedfortheNavybyCaltech.At
Col.Norton’sletterstoWashington.Withinafewweeks,therocket thesametime,theNavyalsoneededanewprovinggroundforall
propulsion community became aware the AFRPL existed at Ed- aviation ordnance. The Caltech work initially built on the British
wardsAFB.Withcontinueduseofthenewstationery,theAFRPL rocket work in which (extrudable, nitrocellulose-based) ballistite
namebecamefamiliarinWashingtonoffices,andnewspaperarticles propellant was used to make cartridge-loaded grains. The book51
usedtheAFRPLtitle.Shortlythereafter,officialordersemanated byR.N.WimpressandB.H.Sage,writtenin1945andpublished
fromHeadquarters,ARDCassigningtheAFRPLtotheResearch in1950,statestheytreatedonly“dry-processeddouble-basepro-
andTechnologyDivisionofthatCommand,effective1December pellants.”However,the208-pagebooktreatseveryphysicalprocess
1962.AcelebrationatAFRPLfollowedwithCol.RobbinsasMas- insiderocketmotorsandprovidesgeneraldesignguidelines,without
terofCeremonies. referencesbecausetheywereconfidential.Theirfailuretociteany
TheAFRPLproducedacontinuousstreamoftalentedmilitary otherworkersisunfortunatesinceattributionfortheiraccomplish-
and civilian scientists, engineers, and leaders. Charles R. Cooke mentshasbeenlost.TherocketworkwasdoneatEatonCanyon52
headedthesolidrocketdivisionformanyyearsandhisyoungprin- intheSanGabrielfoothillsnearPasadena,California.Flighttests
cipalbranchchiefsincludedRobertL.Geisler,LeeG.Meyer,and were conducted at Goldstone Lake near Barstow, California, on
ClarkW.Hawk.ThemilitaryincludedColonelJerryN.Masonwho whatisnowFortIrwin.Bothfacilitieswereinadequatetohandle
managed the Peacekeeper development for the Air Force and Lt. theexpandedeffort.
FranciscoQ.RobertoandLt.RobertC.Corley.Later,ascivilians NOTSwasestablishedinresponsetothoseneedsinNovember
atthelaboratory,RobertoandCorleygainednationalrecognition 1943.TheNOTSmissionwasdefinedinaletterbytheSecretary
as energetic materials synthesis and solid propellant formulation oftheNavydated8November1943:“...astationhavingforits
experts. primaryfunctiontheresearch,development,andtestingofweapons,
Unique among Government rocket labs, AFRPL covers every andhavingadditionalfunctionoffurnishingprimarytraininginthe
type of rocket propulsion, i.e., solid, liquid, hybrid, electric, and useofsuchweapons.”
nuclear. This full-spectrum lab covers strategic, space, and tacti- ThePropulsionSystemsDivisionoftheNAWCandtheassociated
calrocketapplicationsaswellasthemultiple-applicationtechnolo- supporting organizations represent the Navy’s principal center of
giesincludingcombustion,plumes,mechanicalbehavior,aging,and excellenceforresearchanddevelopmentformissilepropulsion—
non-destructivetesting.AFRPLbrokeredandmanagedinnovations both solid propellant and air-breathing systems. The organization
inalltheseareasforseveraldecades.Thelabhashistoricallysought hasevolvedoverthelast59yearstocontinuemeetingthechanging
a50/50mixofofficersandcivilians,resultinginabalanceofcon- propulsionexpertiseneedsoftheU.S.armedforces.
tinuitybetweenthemorepermanentciviliansandthetransientbut ConstructionoftheChinaLakePilotPlantcommencedinMay
moreaggressive,mission-orientedmilitary.Thedeliberatefluxof 1944,andbeganoperationon18November1944.By1958,nearly
people though AFRPL trained several thousand government and ten million rounds of extruded solid rocket motors using NOTS
industryleaders. technology were produced. After the war ended, cognizance for
AFRPL became noted for the development and use of a num- operationoftheplantwastransferredtoNOTS.Theoriginalsite
berofcriticaltestdevicesnowwellknownthroughouttheworld. was changed to a more remote one and the size of the plant was
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CAVENYETAL. 1047
doubled to nearly 100 buildings. Although safety was the major and fabrication facilities are available for design and winding of
factorinthisdecision,itwasnottheonlygoal.TheNavy,through compositemotorcases.Aspecialreal-timeradiographysystemen-
Caltech,hadtakentheleaditthedevelopmentofsolidpropellant ablesmonitoringinternalballisticsduringmotorfiring.Multi-axis
technologyinthiscountry,anditdesiredtomaintainthisleadership teststandsareusedtoresolvesideforcesforTVC-equippedmotors.
afterthewar. Fullenvironmental,safety,andinsensitivemunitionstestingcanbe
At the close of the war, the role of the China Lake Pilot Plant conductedinthetestarea.Indeed,theNAWCworkoninsensitive
changedfromproductiontoresearchanddevelopment.Inthemid materials(IM)andinnovationisWorldrenown.
1950s,theSaltWellsPilotPlant,builtandoperatedbytheAtomic TheroleofChinaLakechangedoverthedecadesfromaproduc-
EnergyCommission,wastransferredtoNOTStoformtheChina tionplanttoaresearchanddevelopmentcenter.Astheindustrial
Lake Propulsion Laboratories (CLPL). A significant credit to the propulsioninfrastructuredevelopedintheU.S.,theroleofChina
ChinaLakepropulsionprogramhasbeentheachievementsofthe Lake shifted toward developing technologies for propulsion and
MichelsenResearchLaboratory. providing the Navy a technical agent for direction of contractor
Severalpeoplewereveryimportantinshapingthecharacterand development and production. The value of the laboratory and its
philosophyoftheNavy’sresearchanddevelopmentprogramsthat partnershipswithindustryisillustratedbythelargenumberofsuc-
ledtothe1943establishmentoftheStation.4 Captain(laterRear cessfultransitionstofieldedsystems.
Admiral)WilliamS.(Deak)Parsons,whoasExperimentalOfficer
After1960:NewGenerationofTechnologists
oftheNavalProvingGround,developedaphilosophyofmilitary–
civilianteamworkinweaponsresearchanddevelopmentthatwas Thepropulsioncompanieshadtheresourcesandmotivationto
tohaveaprofoundeffectontheNOTS.CharlesC.Lauritsen,head investinmodern,well-equippedlaboratories.TheSpaceRaceand
oftheCaltechwartimerocketprogramwasadrivingforcebehind the modern facilities attracted a new generation of well-trained
theestablishmentofNOTS. andhighly-motivatedengineersandscientists.Thefollowingpara-
NumerouswartimerocketprojectswereaccomplishedatNOTS. graphstouchonhowtheyextendedtheknowledgeandtechniques
During the period, 1944–1948,4,6 the Navy fielded an outstand- theyinherited.
ingmilitary-civilianteamatNOTSincludingL.T.E.Thompson, PaulG.WilloughbyandClaytonT.Crowewerepartofoneof
firstTechnicalDirectorofNOTSandprincipalauthoroftheNOTS the most productive research groups formed at CSD in the early
managementphilosophy;Captain(laterRearAdmiral)ShermanE. 1960s.Indeed,WilloughbyandCrowebecameoneword.Theirpio-
Burroughs,Jr.,firstCommandingOfficerofNOTSandexemplary neeringworkincludedtwo-phase-flow53andspineffectsinmotors
member of the Station’s military-civilian team; and Commander containingaluminizedcompositesolidpropellants.Theotherprin-
(later Vice Admiral) John T. (Chick) Hayward, the Station’s first cipalcontributorswereRobertS.Brown,RogerDunlap,RobertW.
ExperimentalOfficer. Hermsen,andMitchellGilbert.Theymeasuredthedragcoefficient
PlacesandprojectsthathelpcharacterizeNOTSduringthepe- ofsphericalparticlestocompletethedragcurveforflowregimes
riodareMichelsonLaboratory,theStation’sprimaryresearchfa- experiencedinrocketnozzles.54Crowehadalsostudieddragcoef-
cility(andsymbolicheartoftheR&DprogramatChinaLake);the ficientsaspartofhisPh.D.thesis.55Hermsencompletedstudieson
5-in.(127-mm)High-VelocityAircraftRocket,HolyMoses,famous metalsfuelscombustion.56WilloughbyandCroweanalyzedparticle
productoftheCaltech–Navyteam(usedextensivelyincombatin growthinrocketnozzles.57Crowe,nowatWashingtonStateUniver-
WW-II);andaBumblebeesurface-to-airmissiletestvehicle.The sity,continuestoresearchparticle-ladenflows.Dunlap,Willoughby,
latter was part of a program that characterized the emergence of and Brown later performed landmark cold-flow experiments and
guidedmissilesandtheimportanceofNOTS’extensiverangesto analysesinsupportofresolvingpressuredropandstabilityissues
theNavy’soveralleffort.Atcenteristhe11.75-in.(0.3-m)aircraft inlargesegmentedboosters.58
rocket,TinyTim,theNavy’sfirstreallybigrocket,abunker-buster As the technical staffs gained strength, empiricisms were aug-
thatsawlimitedserviceneartheendofWW-II. mentedbyphysicalunderstanding.Asanexample,severalinthe
A broadening scope of work and life at the NOTS took place industrybegantorecognizethatnozzleerosion(mechanicalabra-
duringtheyears1948–1958.4ChinaLakeleadersreflectthecombi- sion) was a misnomer. Rather, the regression of graphite nozzle
nationoftechnical,military,andsocialelementsthatmadeNOTS throatswasfromchemicalattack,controlledbythekineticsofthe
unique.TheseindividualsincludeWilliamB.McLean,thegenius specificcombustionproducts(i.e.,H O,CO ,CO,andOH)reacting
2 2
behind the development of Sidewinder, Technical Director of the withthegraphite.TheworkofAllanJ.McDonald,59 LawrenceJ.
Station1954–1967,andoneofthosemostresponsibleforthe“China Delaney,60 andRobertL.Geislerprovideddesigntoolsstillbeing
LakeWay.”AnotherleaderwasCaptain(laterViceAdmiral)Lever- used.
ingSmith,who,asHeadoftheRocketsandExplosivesDepartment Probablymorepapershavebeenwrittenonerosiveburningthat
and as Associate Technical Director at NOTS helped solidify the anyothersolidrocketdesignconsideration.High-speedflowover
military–civilianteam.AsTechnicalDirectorofthePolarisMissile aburningsurfacecontinuestointrigueaerothermochemistsofall
Program,CaptainSmithestablishedChinaLakeasamajorplayer persuasions.However,mostofthetreatmentseithercouldnoteas-
inPolaris.HealsosponsoredboththeSkytoppropulsionandSan ily be used by designers or were specific to a narrow data set.
ClementeIslandunderwater-launchtestfacilities. Charles Saderholm61 took much of the mystery out of predicting
NOTSprovidedconceptualstudiesaswellasmajorTestandEval- erosive-burningrelationshipsofnewpropellantsbyintroducingan
uationprogramsforsomeofthemajorprojectsduringthe1950s. intuitively-pleasingformulismbasedonthresholdsofMachnum-
Among these were the 6.5-in. (165-mm) antitank aircraft rocket, berandburningrate.Saderholm’sworkbenefitedfromunpublished
Ram, developed and delivered in a month to meet urgent needs thresholdMachnumbercorrelationsofR&HdatabyStanleyE.An-
inKorea;andHolyMoses,aWW-IIproductoftheCaltech–NOTS derson.In1973,usingSaderholm’srelationshipsandintroducing
teamthatremainedamainstayoftheFleetfortwodecades.Atcenter sizescalingbasedonTitanseven-segmentdata,J.S.Bakerargued
istheoriginalSidewinder—theheat-homingrocket—whichquickly thattheSpaceShuttleSRMwouldnotexperienceerosiveburning,
epitomized the China Lake philosophy of weapons research and inspiteofhighinternalMachnumbers.Bakertookthemysteryout
development. The Terrier–Tartar–Talos family of shipboard mis- ofscalinggeometry.Thiswasaboldpredictionthatreducedthede-
siles(stemmingfromtheBumblebeetestvehicle)wassymbolicof velopmentcost.Inapaperafterthefirsttwostatictests,DM-1and
theprogramsthathelpedestablishtheunparalleledguided-missile DM-2in1978,Baker62describesthefactorsthatinfluencedthrust
rangesmanagedbyNOTS. versustime.Inhis2003paper,39 EllisLandsbaumnotesthatafter
ChinaLakehasafull-spectrumcapabilityforsupportofresearch 40yearstheSaderholmcorrelations,scaledcorrectly,arestillthe
and development, test and evaluation, and in-service support of mostusefulforpredictingerosiveburning.
propulsion systems. Included are research facilities for synthesis The ability to predict thrust imbalance between pairs of large
of new energetic materials, characterization of propellant formu- strap-onsolidrocketboosters(i.e.,zerostage)affectsthemassthat
lations,andthestudyofcombustioninstability.Compositedesign hastobedevotedtocorrectingtheeffectonthenetthrustvector.