Riot Control Agents: Issues in Toxicology, Safety & Health

363 Pages·2004·5.97 MB·English

by  Eugene J. Olajos

© 2004 by CRC Press LLC
EDITED BY EUGENE J. OLAJOS
AND WOODHALL STOPFORD
CRC PR ESS
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
© 2004 by CRC Press LLC
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Riot Control Agents
Issues in toxicology, safety, and health
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
CHAPTER 1
Introduction and Historical Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Eugene J. Olajos and Woodhall Stopford
CHAPTER 2
Application and Use of Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Jeanne M. Ditter and Charles S. Heal
CHAPTER 3
Synthesis and Chemical Analysis of Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Sidney A. Katz and Harry Salem
CHAPTER 4
Biochemistry, Biological Interactions, and Pharmacokinetics
of Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Eugene J. Olajos
CHAPTER 5
Riot Control Agents and Acute Sensory Irritation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Eugene J. Olajos and Woodhall Stopford
CHAPTER 6
Pharmacology/Toxicology of CS, CR, CN, Formulations,
Degradation Products, Carriers/Solvents,
and Propellants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Eugene J. Olajos and Joan M. Lakoski
CHAPTER 7
Pharmacology/Toxicology of Oleoresin Capsicum,
Capsaicin, and Capsaicinoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Eugene J. Olajos and Joan M. Lakoski
CHAPTER 8
Chronic Toxicity of Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Woodhall Stopford
CHAPTER 9
Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology of
Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Russell F. Mankes and Kristina M. Mankes
CHAPTER 10
Genetic Toxicity of Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Joyce M. Durnford
(cid:2)v
© 2004 by CRC Press LLC
RIOT CONTROL AGENTS
CHAPTER 11
Human Exposures to Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Woodhall Stopford and Frederick R. Sidell
CHAPTER 12
Forensic Aspects of Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Bryan Ballantyne and Harry Salem
CHAPTER 13
An Approach for Assessing and Characterizing Risk from
the Use of Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Jacqueline Patterson, Bert Hakkinen, Patricia Nance,
Michael Dourson, and B. Jon Klauenberg
CHAPTER 14
Occupational Exposures to Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Woodhall Stopford
CHAPTER 15
Risk Management and Public Health Considerations of
Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Veronique D. Hauschild
CHAPTER 16
Environmental Issues Involving Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Larry E. Erickson, Athertina N. Steinau, Terrie Boguski, and
Frederick W. Oehme
CHAPTER 17
Genomics, Proteomics, and Computational Toxicology as Future
Tools in Assessing Health Hazards of Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Akbar S. Khan
CHAPTER 18
Issues/Concerns, Needs, Emerging Concepts/Trends, and
Advances in Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Woodhall Stopford and Eugene J. Olajos
APPENDIX A
Definitions and Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
APPENDIX B
Decontamination and Medical Management after Exposures to
Riot Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
APPENDIX C
Table of Riot Control Agent Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
vi(cid:2)
© 2004 by CRC Press LLC
List of Contributors
Bryan Ballantyne, MD, DSc, PhD Bert Hakkinen, PhD
871 Chappell Road European Commission
Charleston, West Virginia, USA Joint Research Centre
Institute of Health and
Terrie Boguski, BS(En), MEn Consumer Protection
Non-Lethal Environmental Evaluation TP 460, 1-21020 Ispra (VA), Italy
and Remediation Center
104 Ward Hall
Veronique D. Hauschild, MSPH
Kansas State University
US Army Center for Health Promotion
Manhattan, KS 66506-5102
and Preventive Medicine
USA
ATTN: MCHB-TS-EES
Tel.: [phone]
Aberdeen Proving Ground
MD 21010, USA
Jeanne M. Ditter, BS(En)
Tel.: [phone]
US Army, Aberdeen Test Center
Chief, Non-Lethal Weapons Team
Charles S. Heal (CAPT)
ATTN: CSTE-DTC-AT-FC-N
Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department
400 Colleran Road
Special Enforcement Bureau
Aberdeen Proving Ground
130 South Fetterly Avenue
MD 21005, USA
Los Angeles, CA 90022
Tel.: [phone]
Michael Dourson, PhD Sidney A. Katz, PhD
Toxicology Excellence for Risk Professor, Department of Chemistry
Assessment (TERA) 3154 Penn Street
1757 Chase Avenue Rutgers University
Cincinnati, OH 45223, USA Camden, NJ 08102, USA
Tel.: [phone] Tel.: [phone]
Joyce M. Durnford, PhD
Akbar S. Khan, PhD
Battelle Columbus Operations
Research and Technology
505 King Avenue
Directorate
Columbus, OH 43201-2693, USA
US Army Edgewood Chemical and
Tel.: [phone]
Biological Center
Aberdeen Proving Ground
Larry E. Erickson, PhD
MD 21010, USA
Professor of Chemical
Engineering and Director
Center for Hazardous Substance B. Jon Klauenberg, PhD
Research Center, Department of Associate Director, Air Force
Chemical Engineering, Research Laboratory
105 Durland Hall Non-Lethal Weapons
Kansas State University Human Effects Center of Excellence
Manhattan, KS 66506-5102, USA Brooks AFB, TX 78235-5368
Tel.: [phone] Tel.: [phone]
(cid:2)vii
© 2004 by CRC Press LLC
RIOT CONTROL AGENTS
Joan M. Lakoski, PhD Eugene J. Olajos, PhD
Assistant Vice Chancellor, Health Sciences US Army Edgewood Chemical and
and Professor of Pharmacology Biological Center
University of Pittsburgh Medical Center 5183 Blackhawk Road
Scaife Hall, 3550 Terrace Street Aberdeen Proving Ground
Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA MD 21010, USA
Tel.: [phone] Tel.: [phone]
Jacqueline Patterson, MEn
Russell F. Mankes, PhD Toxicology Excellence for Risk
Associate Professor Assessment (TERA)
Department of Environmental Health and 1757 Chase Avenue
Safety Cincinnati, OH 45223, USA
Albany Medical College Tel.: [phone]
47 New Scotland Avenue
Albany, NY 12208, USA Harry Salem, PhD
Tel.: [phone] US Army Chemical and Biological Center
5183 Blackhawk Road
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010
Kristina M. Mankes, MD
Tel.: [phone]
Department of Medicine,
University of Maryland,
Frederick R. Sidell, MD
22 South Greene
Consultant
Baltimore, MD 21201
14 Brooks Road
Bel Air, MD 21014, USA
Patricia Nance, MEd, MA
Athertina N. Steinau, BS, MS, MS
Toxicology Excellence for Risk
Consultant
Assessment (TERA)
7302 Paces Park Drive
1757 Chase Avenue
Decatur, GA 30033, USA
Cincinnati, OH 45223, USA
Tel.: [phone]
Tel.: [phone]
Woodhall Stopford, MD, MSPH
Frederick W. Oehme, DVM, PhD Division of Occupational and
Kansas State University Environmental Medicine,
Comparative Toxicology Laboratories Duke University Medical Center
1800 Denison Avenue 2200 West Main Street, Suite 600
Manhattan, KS 66506-5606, USA Durham, NC, 27705, USA
Tel.: [phone] Tel.: [phone]
viii(cid:2)
© 2004 by CRC Press LLC
Preface
The use of chemicals for riot control and for civilian peacekeeping operations has become
a notable feature of modern day society. Riot control agents (RCAs) are substances that
have immediate and direct effects on humans. In most circumstances, RCAs are safe
when handled correctly and with precautionary and guidance measures. However,
because of their wide usage and potential for misuse, adverse effects may occur. There is
a rapidly increasing interest in the application/use, health hazards/risks, environmental
impact, and risk assessment/characterization/management of RCAs. Moreover, the
enhanced awareness by the general public as to the potential risks from RCAs places
increased emphasis and importance, if not mandating, the need for knowledgeable
scientific, medical, and public health communities as well as a better informed law
enforcement community.
This volume presents an extensive account of RCAs. The chapters not only cover the
biochemistry, chemistry, pharmacology/toxicology, clinical aspects, genotoxicity, and
developmental/reproductive effects but also include topics covering application/use,
forensic aspects, occupational health considerations, environmental aspects, and
risk/regulatory concerns and issues. The comparative and human toxicology of RCAs are
presented and discussed in detail. Moreover, the biological effects of RCAs are viewed not
only from the perspective of active ingredients but also takes into consideration the per-
spective of RCA formulations and components such as carriers/solvents. Appendixes are
also included – one of which focuses on medical treatment and care. The chapter
contributors are distinguished scientists and clinicians from academia, government, and
industry recognized for their contributions and prominence in RCA research and involve-
ment in RCA health and safety issues.
This book evolved from the need for a single and comprehensive source of informa-
tion on RCAs and recognition of a growing awareness by health professionals and the
general public regarding the potential hazards from RCAs.
In view of the extensive use of RCAs, it is hoped that this book will be of value to a
wide spectrum of professionals and organizations. We believe this work will be a refer-
ence source to toxicologists, pharmacologists, medical and public health professionals,
occupational health care specialists, general and emergency room physicians, environ-
mental scientists, chemists and biochemists, regulatory officials, and safety personnel.
Further, this volume will serve as an impetus for others to seek a greater and better under-
standing of RCA biology, chemistry, health issues, and regulatory concerns as well as
fostering research and development.
The editors would like to pay tribute to each individual author for a substantial
contribution achieved at the cost of personal effort and time. We thank also the staff at
Taylor & Francis who helped make this publication possible.
We are very grateful for the unfailing support, encouragement, and wisdom of Jane
Elizabeth Davis and Carolyn Stopford throughout the course of our endeavors. We dedi-
cate this book to you.
Eugene J. Olajos
Woodhall Stopford
(cid:2)ix
© 2004 by CRC Press LLC
CHAPTER
1
Introduction and
Historical Perspectives
EUGENE J. OLAJOS1AND WOODHALL STOPFORD2
1 US Army Edgewood Chemical and Biological Center,
AberdeenProving Ground, Maryland
2 Division of Occupational and Environmental Medicine,
DukeUniversity Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Techniques have been available for many years to deal with civil disturbances and
uncontrolled demonstrations – in particular methods involving the utilization of irritant
chemical substances. Modalities used in riot control situations are intended to deter,
disperse or render temporarily incapacitated those involved in disturbances using mini-
mal physical intervention and reduction of face-to-face conflict between law enforce-
ment or responding personnel and demonstrators. Nonchemical means of riot control
and crowd dispersion include the use of water cannon and plastic/rubber bullets – other
approaches such as the use of low friction polymers to hinder movement has been sug-
gested as a potentially useful riot control technique. Chemically based means of riot con-
trol and crowd dispersion, either in use, under development, or proposed, include the
following types of chemical intervention: (1) peripheral sensory irritants (i.e. “tear gases”,
oleoresin capsicum (OC, “pepper spray”), (2) dyes, pigments or fluorescent marking
paints, (3) persistent obnoxious odor causing substances (malodorants), and (4) nonirri-
tant obscuring smokes (Swearengen, 1966; Pearlman, 1969; Deane-Drummond, 1975;
Ballantyne, 1977). Riot control methods are diverse and some have obvious toxicologi-
cal, medical, operational, or sociological disadvantages and have not been utilized in civil
disturbances. Of the aforementioned chemically based riot control technologies,
devices/systems based on the peripheral sensory irritants also referred to as “lacrimators,”
“harassing agents,” “tear gases” (i.e. chloroacetophenone (CN), o-chlorobenzylidene
malononitrile (CS)), and “inflammatory agents” (i.e. OC), constitute the mainline riot
control agents (RCAs) used by law enforcement and military personnel. A recently
developed product for law enforcement use (i.e. CapTor®) contains nonivamide
(“synthetic capsaicin”) as the active ingredient and is considered by the manufacturer as
an improvement over established defense sprays containing CS, CN, or OC.
“Riot control agents” is the collective term used to describe a divergent group of com-
pounds that have been developed for use by law enforcement and military personnel as
well as for personal protection. These compounds have been referred to as lacrimators or
as “harassing agents” and are commonly called “tear gases” – the latter term a misnomer
since these compounds are not gases. Reference to these compounds as “harassing
agents” is based on chemically induced localized, uncomfortable sensations (e.g. lacrima-
tion, stinging, burning sensation, rhinorrhea, tightness in the chest) with associated
reflexes. The effectiveness of these compounds in crowd control/crowd dispersion derives
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© 2004 by CRC Press LLC