Rhythm and Blues, Rap, and Hip-Hop (American Popular Music)

342 Pages·2005·22.1 MB·English

by  Frank W. Hoffmann

American Popular Music
Rhythm and Blues,
Rap, and Hip-Hop
Frank Hoffmann
Foreword by Albin J. Zak III, Ph.D.
University at Albany (SUNY)
Contents
Foreword vii
Preface xi
Introduction xv
A-TO-Z ENTRIES 1
Appendixes 293
Glossary of Music Terms 305
Further Reading and Research 313
Editorial Board of Advisers 317
Index 319

Foreword
Asignal feature ofany encyclopedia is its presen- example, owe their early musical training to the
tation of the elements of a historical mosaic churches they attended as youngsters.Sam Cooke,
unassembled.The only organizing narrative force is Aretha Franklin, Teddy Pendergrass, and Whitney
the alphabet.From this leveled landscape,a reader is Houston are but a tiny sample ofartists schooled in
often led to unlikely observations of affinity and the musical and expressive traditions of black
confluence among the encyclopedia’s disparate gospel music. And each of these artists came to
entries.Because chronological sequence is not a fac- national prominence in a different decade,from the
tor,we wander as through a museum,forming our 1950s to the 1980s,a clear indication ofthe church’s
own impressions of the connections among the continuing influence. Indeed, the foundations for
things we observe. Encyclopedias are, of course, the style shared by hundreds ofdoo-wop groups of
especially useful in directing us to a particular topic. the 1950s was laid in black churches.And the vocal
But it is also instructive simply to read through a few stylings common to all modern R&B divas are con-
entries in succession.Start at the beginning.Reading nected intimately to a long-standing tradition of
the first four entries—“Paula Abdul,” “Above the gospel expression.
Law,” “Herb Abramson,” “a cappella”—we cover It is the connections to a traditional past and the
most of the historical time frame this book repre- continual, dynamic reshaping of tradition that
sents.A cappella is the unaccompanied singing style gives this music its vitality,its strength,and its wide
favored by early rock-and-roll vocal groups of the appeal.As the past is invoked,it informs the present
1950s. Paula Abdul represents the 1980s pop diva with something familiar, and as traditional ele-
for whom the dance was at least as important as the ments are transformed, they become fresh. The
voice.Above the Law takes us into the 1990s,when Orioles, and dozens of subsequent doo-wop
hip-hop became king.And Herb Abramson was one groups,built on the sound ofthe Ink Spots and the
of the founders of Atlantic Records, perhaps the Mills Brothers but transformed their elders’
premier R&B label, with a history stretching from smooth, sophisticated pop, with its perfect
the late 1940s to today,the home,over the years,to Hollywood-movie diction and subtle jazz inflec-
the likes of Ray Charles, The Drifters, Aretha tions,into a more youthful,unpolished sound with
Franklin,Wilson Pickett,Chic,and Lil’Kim. the lead singer’s voice barely able to contain a sense
Reading through a succession of apparently ofemotional transport.Prince,in forging an eclec-
unrelated topics may feel disorienting at first, but tic mix of R&B, pop, and rock elements, demon-
gradually,among the kaleidoscopic wealth ofinfor- strates, in his early work, a clear affinity for Sly
mation,common themes emerge,connecting many Stone while offering up a blend that is all his own.
of the entries to one another in various ways. A And hip-hop culture, with its widespread use of
great many ofthe artists cataloged in this book,for sampling, makes connections with a musical past
vii
viii Foreword
that range from sound fragments to extended quo- labels lacked the polish of the majors,they held an
tations,such as Dr Dre’s chorus for “Let Me Ride” undeniable emotional energy,and that was key.As
(1992), which is taken from Parliament’s these often rough-hewn, yet affecting, recordings
“Mothership Connection (Star Child)” (1976), or became successful, that is, as they became part of
Missy Elliott’s revision (in 1997) ofAnn Peebles’“I people’s lives,they contributed to the development
Can’t Stand the Rain”(1974).Furthermore,the ori- among artists and the public of what we might call
gins of rap in the 1970s as a street music requiring recording consciousness—a sense that records have
no instruments are essentially similar to those of a uniqueness about them,something different from
doo-wop in the late 1940s,where groups ofkids had live performance. The studio culture that would
only to gather on a neighborhood street, using build over the years in now legendary studios such
nothing but their voices to make music that would, as Hitsville U.S.A.(Motown),Stax,and Atlantic has
eventually,develop worldwide appeal.Such connec- become fundamental to how music is produced and
tions demonstrate the continued presence of a what listeners expect. Disco, Detroit techno, and
musical ancestry in the work ofsucceeding musical other types of electronica are altogether studio-
generations,through which develops a sense ofsta- based genres.And hip-hop,despite its street roots,
ble and enduring tradition. has thrived on the creative efforts of an array of
Another common thread running through the producers making records that both tap into tradi-
encyclopedia is the medium that represents and tion and bring forth ever-new approaches to sonic
transmits the music,namely,recordings.The emer- expression. Indeed, the vast accumulation of
gence of R&B coincided with an unprecedented records made over the past 60 years is itself a kind
increase both in record sales and in records’presence of encyclopedia. Thus, Public Enemy’s Hank
on radio (increasingly displacing live broadcast per- Shocklee says that his brother, coproducer Keith,
formances). Records became, as never before, the “knows records like an encyclopedia.”The records
music industry’s coin of the realm. And as they themselves are repositories of knowledge, experi-
circulated, they allowed black music to travel in ence,and tradition.It is fitting,then,that they pro-
ways that were often forbidden to black musicians vide not only pleasurable listening but pedagogic
in a segregated and racist society. And as records resources for thousands of young musicians, who
developed an unprecedented economic potency, as learn their craft by listening,and nodes ofcollective
increasing numbers of them were produced for memory for successive generations.
the growing market, recording studios and record In the history of American popular music, the
companies sprang up across the country,many little contributions ofblack Americans far outweigh their
more than a couple of rooms in a storefront or proportional presence in the overall population. It
warehouse. Making records became an attainable is striking that the American Popular Music series
aspiration for thousands of young musicians who has two other volumes devoted primarily to black
would have had no such opportunity with the large music:Jazzand Blues.In fact,the influence ofblack
established record companies. With the recording music is so pervasive that many white musicians,in
field expanding exponentially, the range of sounds their most impressionable years,develop an affinity
and production techniques expanded as well,some- for black music that forms the basis of their later
times through conscious creativity, other times by careers. Elvis Presley, the songwriters Jerry Leiber
accident,luck,or happenstance. and Mike Stoller, the Rascals, and Eminem are
With the recording field so densely and various- a representative few of the many white musicians
ly populated,different ideas arose of how a record irresistibly drawn to black musical styles in search of
should sound, what it should get across. If the their own black-inflected voice. The pervasiveness
records released by the small independent record ofthe musical influence makes as good a case as any
Foreword ix
that,while this music may originate with a particu- too,had learned from records.The Beatles record-
lar segment of the population,it is ultimately tran- ed reverential cover versions of the Marvellettes’
scendent. That is, while it is certainly the music of “Please Mr. Postman,”Smokey Robinson and the
black Americans, it has become also the music of Miracles’s “You’ve Really Got a Hold on Me,”and
all Americans, which explains the iconic status of Barrett Strong’s “Money (That’s What I Want)”,
so many black performers.Sam Cooke,Ray Charles, and the Rolling Stones, before they learned to
Otis Redding,Jimi Hendrix,Aretha Franklin,James write their own songs, lived on the legacy of
Brown, the Supremes, Prince, Michael Jackson, their heroes—Muddy Waters, Howlin’ Wolf, and
Tupac Shakur,and Lauryn Hill are among the many Chuck Berry.
stars, representing various musical genres, whose The Rhythm and Blues,Rap,and Hip-Hopvolume
impact has been felt throughout the culture and of American Popular Music is both an informative
proved lasting. resource and a celebration of a musical tradition.
Moreover,African-American musical influence While it is necessarily selective,it points beyond its
is international. There was a time when black own boundaries in several directions—to other
music was only available to African Americans, musical genres covered elsewhere in the series, to
when record companies marketed “race” records a historical past whose legacy is the foundation of
only in African-American communities, and the music represented here, and to more detailed
radio all but ignored the music. Mainstream stories of the artists, songs, songwriters, arrangers,
media companies felt sure that the appeal of the records, disc jockeys, radio stations, record labels,
music was limited. But in the era represented by producers,and entrepreneurs whose collective pres-
this volume,black music proved its power to cross ence hovers over this project.As such,it is a starting
boundaries of social demarcation and geographic point for further exploration both ofa complex and
distance, including oceans. After all, the young fascinating cultural history and of an astonishing
English musicians who seemed to come out of wealth ofmusical achievement.
nowhere in the 1960s in fact had deep roots in Albin J.Zak III,Ph.D.
American R&B, blues, and rock and roll. They, University at Albany (SUNY)
Preface
American popular music reflects the rich meanings.While some might exclude certain gen-
cultural diversity of the American people. res covered in this series—American classical music
From classical to folk to jazz, America has con- leaps to mind—we felt that it was important to rep-
tributed a rich legacy ofmusical styles to the world resent the range of musical styles that have been
over its two-plus centuries of existence. The rich popular in the United States over its entire history.
cross-fertilization of cultures—African-American, New scholarship has brought to light the interplay
Hispanic, Asian, and European—has resulted in among genres that previously were felt to be unre-
one of the unique musical mixtures in the world. lated—such as the influence of folk forms on clas-
American Popular Music celebrates this great sical music,opera’s influence on jazz,or the blues’
diversity by presenting to the student, researcher, influence on country—so that to truly understand
and individual enthusiast a wealth of information each musical style,it is important to be conversant
on each musical style in an easily accessible format. with at least some aspects ofall.
The subjects covered are: These volumes are intended to be introductory,
not comprehensive.Any “A to Z”work is by its very
Blues nature selective;it’s impossible to include everyfig-
Classical music ure,everysong,or everykey event.For most users,
Country we hope the selections made here will be more than
Folk music adequate,giving information on the key composers
Jazz and performers who shaped each style, while also
Rock and Roll introducing some lesser-known figures who are
Rhythm and Blues,Rap,and Hip-Hop worthy ofstudy.The Editorial Board and other out-
side advisers played a key role in reviewing the
Each volume presents key information on per- entry lists for completeness.
formers, musical genres, famous compositions, All encyclopedia authors also face the rather
musical instruments,media,and centers ofmusical daunting task of separating fact from fiction when
activity.The volumes conclude with a chronology, writing short biographies of performers and com-
recommended listening,and a complete bibliogra- posers. Even birth and death dates can be “up for
phy or list ofsources for further study. grabs,”as artists have been known to subtract years
How do we define popular music? Literally, any from their lives in their official biographies.
music that attracts a reasonably large audience is “Official”records are often unavailable,particular-
“popular” (as opposed to “unpopular”). Over the ly for earlier artists who may have been born at
past few decades,however,as the study of popular home, or for those whose family histories them-
music has grown,the term has come to have specific selves are shrouded in mystery.We have attempted
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xii Preface
to draw on the latest research and most reliable travelers,and others who seek only to make a quick
sources whenever possible, and have also pointed buck by following easy-to-identify trends.While we
out when key facts are in dispute. And, for many bemoan the lack of new visionary artists today like
popular performers,the myth can be as important Bessie Smith,Miles Davis,Pauline Oliveros,or Bob
as the reality when it comes to their lives, so we Dylan, it’s important to remember that when they
have tried to honor both in writing about their first came on the scene the vast majority ofpopular
achievements. performers were journeymen musicians at best.
Popular music reflects the concerns ofthe artists Popular music will always include many second-,
who create it and their audience. Each era of our third-, and fourth-tier performers; some will offer
country’s history has spawned a variety of popular one or two recordings or performances that will
music styles, and these styles in turn have grown have a lasting impact,while many will be celebrated
over the decades as new performers and new times during their 15 minutes of fame, but most will be
have arisen. These volumes try to place the music forgotten.In separating the wheat from the chaff,it
into its context,acknowledging that the way music is understandably easier for our writers working on
is performed and its effect on the greater society is earlier styles where the passing of time has helped
as important as the music itself.We’ve also tried to sort out the important from the just popular.
highlight the many interchanges between styles and However, all the contributors have tried to supply
performers, because one of the unique—and some distance, giving greatest weight to the true
important—aspects ofAmerican cultural life is the artists, while acknowledging that popular figures
way that various people have come together to cre- who are less talented can nonetheless have a great
ate a new culture out ofthe interplay oftheir origi- impact on the genre during their performing
nal practices and beliefs. career—no matter how briefit might be.
Race,class,culture,and sex have played roles in All in all,the range,depth,and quality of pop-
the development of American popular music. ular musical styles that have developed in the
Regrettably, the playing field has not always been United States over its lifetime is truly amazing.
level for performers from different backgrounds, These styles could not have arisen anywhere else,
particularly when it comes to the business aspects but are the unique products of the mixing of cul-
of the industry: paying royalties, honoring copy- tures, geography, technology, and sheer luck that
rights, and the general treatment of artists. Some helped disseminate each style. Who could have
figures have been forgotten or ignored who forecast the music ofBill Monroe before he assem-
deserved greater attention; the marketplace can bled his first great bluegrass band? Or predicted
be ruthless, and its agents—music publishers, the melding of gospel, rhythm and blues, and
record producers, concert promoters—have and popular music achieved by Aretha Franklin during
undoubtedly will continue to take advantage of her reign as “Queen of Soul”? The tinkering of
the musicians trying to bring their unique voices classical composer John Cage—who admitted to
to market. These volumes attempt to address having no talent for creating melodies—was a
many of these issues as they have affected the truly American response to new technologies, a
development of individual musicians’ careers as new environment,and a new role for music in our
well as from the larger perspective of the growth lives. And Patti Smith’s particular take on poetry,
of popular music. The reader is encouraged to the punk-rock movement, and the difficulties
delve further into these topics by referring to the faced by a woman who leads a rock band make her
bibliographies in each volume. music particularly compelling and original—and
Popular music can be a slave itself to crass com- unpredictable to those who dismissed the original
mercialism,as well as a bevy of hangers-on,fellow rock records as mere “teenage fluff.”
Preface xiii
We hope that the volumes in this series will open also to put these books down to listen. Come to
your eyes,minds,and,most important,your ears to your own conclusions.American popular music is
a world of musical styles. Some may be familiar, a rich world,one open to many different interpreta-
others more obscure, but all are worthy. With tions. We hope these volumes serve as your win-
today’s proliferation of sound on the Web,finding dows to these many compelling worlds.
even the most obscure recording is becoming Richard Carlin,
increasingly simple.We urge you to read deeply but General Editor