Revolutionary Russia: A History in Documents

249 Pages·2010·42.618 MB·English

by  Robert S. Weinberg

Revolutionary Russia
A HISTORY IN DOCUMENTS
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Revolutionary Russia
A HISTORY IN DOCUMENTS
Robert Weinberg
Laurie Bernstein
New York Oxford
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
2011
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Copyright © 2011 by Robert Weinberg and Laurie Bernstein
Robert G. Moeller
Professor of History Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cover: Vladimir Lenin addressing
Weinberg, Robert.
the military, c. 1900.
Revolutionary Russia : a history in documents / Robert Weinberg, Laurie Bernstein,
p. cm.
Frontispiece: A1930 Soviet
Includes bibliographical references and index.
poster in which a peasant
ISBN 978-0-19-533794-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-19-512225-1 (hard­
wants to "Kick the kulaks
cover : alk. paper) 1. Soviet Union—History—1917-1936—Sources. 2. Russia—
off the collective farm."
History—Nicholas II, 1894-1917—Sources. 3. Social change—Soviet Union—His­
tory—Sources. 4. Social change—Russia—History—20th century—Sources. 5.
Title page: Moscow workers
Soviet Union—Social conditions—1917-1945—Sources. 6. Russia—Social condi­
march to a meeting about
tions—1801-1917—Sources. 7. Communism—Soviet Union—History—Sources.
collectivization in 1929.
8. Political culture—Soviet Union—History—Sources. 9. Soviet Union—Politics
and government—1917-1936—Sources. 10. Russia—Politics and government—
1894-1917—Sources. I. Bernstein, Laurie. II. Title.
DK266.A3W45 2010
947.084' 1—dc22
2009038666
Printing number: 987654321
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
Contents
What is a Document? ♦ vi The War Against the Peasantry
How to Read a Document ♦ viii and Church ♦ 126
The World of Five-Year Plans ♦ 139
Introduction ♦ 1
6
Note on Sources and Interpretation ♦ 5 Picture Essay: Women’s Liberation
in the Soviet Union ♦ 153
1 Prelude to Revolution ♦ 9
7
A Land of Contrasts ♦ 10 Soviet Society and Culture
Revolutionary Politics ♦ 19
in the 1930s ♦ 163
The Revolution of 1905 ♦ 23
The Cult of Stalin ♦ 165
On the Eve of War and Revolution ♦ 32
The Stalinist Revolution ♦ 171
\
2 1917: Hie Year of Revolution ♦ 37
8 The Great Terror ♦ 185
The Radicalization of Society ♦ 39
The Gulag ♦ 188
The Bolshevik Rise to Power ♦ 50
Three Views of the Purges ♦ 197
Views of the Revolution ♦ 55
The Trial of Bukharin ♦ 202
Literature and the Purges ♦ 204
The Consolidation of Bolshevik
Rule, 1918-1921 ♦ 61
Epilogue ♦ 209
The Fate of the Royal Family ♦ 63
Assessments of Stalinism ♦ 211
Opposition and Criticism ♦ 67
Reflection on the Soviet Experience ♦ 218
The Embrace of Dictatorship ♦ 77
Peasant Resistance and the Crisis
Timeline ♦ 222
of Kronstadt ♦ 83
Further Reading ♦ 224
4
Websites ♦ 228
The Road to Socialism ♦ 91
Text Credits ♦ 229
The Transformation of Culture
Picture Credits ♦ 232
and Society ♦ 93
Index ♦ 233
Celebrating Revolution ♦ 108
The Debate about NEP ♦ 112
Stalin’s Revolution from Above,
1928-1932 ♦ 121
Beating Russia into the 20th
Century ♦ 123
What is a
Document?
To the historian, a document is, quite sim­
ply, any sort of historical evidence. It is a pri­
mary source, the raw material of history. A
document may be more than the expected
government paperwork, such as a treaty or
passport. It is also a letter, diary, will, grocery
list, newspaper article, recipe, memoir, oral
history, school yearbook, map, chart, ar­
chitectural plan, poster, musical score, play
script, novel, political cartoon, painting,
photograph—even an object.
Using primary sources allows us not
just to read about history, but to read his­
tory itself. It allows us to immerse our­
selves in the look and feel of an era gone
by, to understand its people and their lan­
guage, whether verbal or visual. And it al­ Cartoon
lows us to take an active, hands-on role in This political cartoon addresses the issue of church and state. It illustrates the
(re) constructing history. Supreme Court's role in balancing the demands of the ist Amendment of the
Constitution and the desires of the religious population.
Using primary sources requires us to
use our powers of detection to ferret out
the relevant facts and to draw conclusions
from them; just as Agatha Christie uses the Illustration wW -
scores in a bridge game to determine the Illustrations from children's Tim# cuts down all
identity of a murderer, the historian uses books, such as this alphabet both great and ima8.
facts from a variety of sources—some, per­ from the New England Prim­
haps, seemingly inconsequential—to build er, tell us how children were Ur f u* f 0 inW iCi
educated, and also what the Made David lcc* Ml
a historical case. Lite.
religious and moral values of
The poet W. H. Auden wrote that his­
the time were. XVhalu in the Sea
tory was the study of questions. Primary Uod’t Voice obey.
sources force us to ask questions—and
then, by answering them, to construct a Xtrxtt the great did
die,
narrative or an argument that makes sense
And fo nuit you A I.
to us. Moreover, as we draw on the many
Youth forward dipt
sources from “the dust-bin of history,” we Death foonelt nipt.
can endow that narrative with character,
Zacbfut he
personality, and texture—all the elements |:id Dc Trie-.
that make history so endlessly intriguing. H i Loi-J to kc.
What Is a Document? vii
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1
Treaty
A government document such as this 1805 treaty can reveal not only the details of government policy, but
information about the people who signed it. Here, the Indians' names were written in English transliteration
by U.S. officials; the Indians added pictographs to the right of their names.
Map
A1788 British map of India shows the region prior to
British colonization, an indication of the kingdoms and
provinces whose ethnic divisions would resurface later
in India's history.
Object
In this fifteenth-century ewer, both the physical materials
of brass and silver and the iconic depiction of heaven as a
forest display the refinement of the owner, an Egyptian
sultan's wife. Objects, along with manuscripts and printed
materials, provide evidence about the past.
VÜi REVOLUTIONARY RUSSIA
How to Read Subject
This photograph of soldiers looting a monastery church in the 1920s
reveals the Bolshevik attitude and policy toward religion. Supporters of the
a Document
revolutions attack on religion would have viewed the actions of the soldiers
in a positive light. The government presumably was not embarrassed by the
soldiers' actions; indeed, it may have hoped that the photograph would inspire
Students of history base their knowledge of
others to follow suit. While many of the soldiers appear to be barely out of
the past on what they read in history books.
their teens, adult men, probably the soldiers’ superior officers, stand off to the
But from where do the authors of history
side in the background. The young man in the front carefully watches his step,
books derive their information? How do they while the joyful, almost playful attitude of the other soldiers is evident in their
put their stories together? In most cases, his­ smiles and bemused looks. Were they responding to a humorous comment
torians work with documents, also known made by one of the soldiers in the group? On the other hand, the photograph
as “primary sources,” they collect from the may have unwittingly helped the enemies of the revolution: the sight of
period in question. Then, much as a detec­ soldiers plundering a place of worship would have intensified their hatred of
tive builds a case, they use those documents the Bolsheviks as “godless communists.” Were churchgoers and members
to build their story. As you can see from this of the congregation watching the desecration of the church? Did anyone try
to prevent the looting? Why not? Contrary to the intent of the government,
book, documents come in many forms, in­
opponents of the revolution may have used the photograph to publicize what
cluding diaries, photographs, newspaper
they believed to be the repressive measures of the government.
articles, minutes from meetings, essays, art,
artifacts, fiction, and any other sources that Interpretation
contain clues to the historical past. The Bolsheviks’ campaign against Russian Orthodoxy explains why
Just as detectives must unravel each the soldiers removed religious objects from the church. The economic
clue that comes their way, so must histo­ conditions of the 1920s shed light on why the soldiers also carried away
rians. They must learn everything possible chunks of stone, along with gold and silver artifacts. The government used
about their source so they can discover its the stone and other materials from looted churches for other construction
particular value, asking questions like: Is projects and melted down the silver and gold found in icons (religious
paintings) and the church building for use as currency.
the source trustworthy? Is the story believ­
able? Who is its author? Is there some rea­
Text
son that the author would want to present
This account of the work of the Cheka (Extraordinary Commission to
things in a certain way? What’s left out? In
Combat Counter-Revolution and Sabotage) on September 17,1918,
other words, documents are not transpar­ illustrates the operation of justice soon after the outbreak of civil war, when
ent to historians; they need to read with martial law had been decreed by the Bolshevik government. In addition to
care, drawing conclusions based on com­ the 16 persons listed by name, another 41 individuals were arraigned and
mon sense and on other knowledge and sentenced by the Cheka that day, making a total of 57 persons whose cases
information they have learned. They need were handled in one day. There is no mention of a jury, and the meting out
to gain insight into the historical context in of justice in a summary fashion raises the question of whether the defendants
which the document was produced. More­ received what we understand as fair trials based on rules of evidence. The
Cheka made life-and-death decisions for a large number of persons in one day.
over, historians may differ in how they in­
terpret the same sources.
Interpretation
Did the harshness of one’s sentence depend on the nature of the crime
committed or on the social class of the accused? What role did ones links
to the tsarist regime play in the determination of guilt and sentence? Why
did defendants Brazhko and Kondratiuk avoid the death sentence, whereas
defendant Gepner, not accused of murder, was sentenced to death by
shooting? It appears that common murderers found more sympathy at the
hands of the Cheka than former police officers.
How to Read a Document ix
The session took place in the presence of seven members of the Ex­
traordinary Commission (Cheka) and two members of the Central
Collegium of the Russian Communist Party.
The following were arraigned:
1. Antonevich, S., former (army) officer, an active participant
in a counter-revolutionary plot to overthrow Soviet rule.
Decision: He is to be shot.
2. Gepner, Vladimir, former chief of police of Smolensk. De­
cision: He is to be shot.
3. Korshonboim, former assistant inspector of Smolensk
Prison. He flogged political prisoners while holding the
position of prison inspector. Decision: He is to be turned
over to the People s Court and his case is transferred to the
Department of Justice.
4. Revknev, I., arrested for serving in the Polish Corps. Deci­
sion: He is to be released from arrest in view of the fact that
he was only a private in the Polish Corps.
5. Sorokin, V., former general and head of the secret police.
Decision: He is to be shot.
6. Mikhailov, M., a criminal,... charged with participation in
murders and robberies. Decision: He is to be shot.
7. Romanov, Zakhar, former police guard,... notorious for
cruelty to peasants. Decision: He is to be shot.
8. Kondratiuk, G., charged with drunkenness and murder.
Decision: He is to be transferred to the Peoples Court.
9. Brazhko, charged with drunkenness and murder. Decision:
Three months in jail.
10. Toptunov, Leiba, charged with giving a bribe. Decision: He
is to be released from arrest and to receive his money back.
11. Goncharov, E., Piroga, A., Kozlov, and Egorov, members of
the militia, charged with violation of official duties. Deci­
sion: They are to be released.
12. Dorman, M., former general, involved in the organization
of a counter-revolutionary plot against the Soviet govern­
ment. Decision: He is to be shot.
13. Dorman, Vladimir, son of General Dorman.... Decision:
Being only fifteen years old, he is to be released.
[An additional 41 names follow, of whom 25 are sentenced to
be shot.]
Chairman of the Extraordinary Commission of the Western
Region