Rethinking urban sprawl moving towards sustainable cities

170 Pages·2018·9.191 MB·English

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Rethinking Urban Sprawl
Moving TowaRdS SUSTainable CiTieS
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Rethinking Urban
Sprawl
MOVING TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE CITIES
ThisworkispublishedundertheresponsibilityoftheSecretary-GeneraloftheOECD.The
opinionsexpressedandargumentsemployedhereindonotnecessarilyreflecttheofficial
viewsofOECDmembercountries.
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Pleasecitethispublicationas:
OECD(2018),RethinkingUrbanSprawl:MovingTowardsSustainableCities,OECDPublishing,Paris.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264189881-en
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ISBN978-92-64-18988-1(PDF)
ISBN978-92-64-29795-1(e-pub)
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FOREWORD
Foreword
H
ometomorethanhalfoftheworld’spopulation,citiesaretheenginesofeconomicgrowthand
employment.The200largesturbanareasgeneratemorethan60%ofjobsandgrowthintheOECD.
With the share of world population living in urban areas projected to reach 70% by 2050 (86% in
OECDcountries),theimportanceofcitieswillonlyincrease.
Cities are increasingly interconnected, global arenas and face a range of environmental,
economicandsocialchallenges.Theyareresponsibleforovertwo-thirdsofenergyconsumptionand
morethan70%ofCO emissionsglobally.TheOECDhasestimatedthatoutdoorairpollutioncould
2
cause6to9millionprematuredeathsayearby2060,withcitiesparticularlyhardhit.Citiesfacea
widerangeofinterconnectedchallenges,suchasroadcongestion,lackofhousingaffordability,and
socialexclusion.Urbansprawl,aparticularformofurbandevelopment,isoftencitedasadriverof
thesechallenges.
RethinkingUrbanSprawl:MovingTowardsSustainableCitiesoffersanewperspectiveon
urban sprawl, contributing to a better understanding of its evolution, causes and consequences. It
provides new insights on the design, delivery and implementation of policies to shift urban
development patterns towards more sustainable trajectories. This will be crucial to achieve the
SustainableDevelopmentGoalsandmeettheobjectivesoftheParisAgreement.
Inparticular,thereportlooksatpastandcurrenturbandevelopmentpatternsofOECDcities
and establishes a new set of indicators that quantify the multiple dimensions of urban sprawl. It
showsthatcitiesinmostoftheexaminedOECDcountrieshavebecomemorefragmented,andthe
share of low-density areas in population and urban land coverage has increased.While there are
differences between and within countries, urban form is generally evolving in a way that induces
higher car dependency and longer commuting distances. Such a development pattern also
substantiallyincreasesthepercapitacostsofprovidingpublicservices.Water,sanitation,electricity,
public transport, waste management, policing and other services that are key for well-being are
muchmoreexpensivetoprovideinfragmentedareasoflow-density.
Therefore, coherent and targeted policy action is urgently needed from different levels of
governmenttosteerurbandevelopmenttowardsmoresustainablepathways.Policyinstrumentsfor
greener and more cost-effective urban transport, such as appropriate pricing of car travel and
parking,canbeparticularlyeffectiveinaddressingtheenvironmentalconsequencesofurbansprawl
in theshortrun. Land-usepolicyreformspromotingsocially desirablelevelsof populationdensity,
such as relaxing maximum density restrictions and incentivising developers to provide public
infrastructurefornewconstructions,canbearfruitinthelongerrun.
RETHINKINGURBANSPRAWL:MOVINGTOWARDSSUSTAINABLECITIES©OECD2018 3
FOREWORD
Howcitiesdevelopoverthenextyearswilldetermineprogressonaddressingkeyenvironmental,
economic and social challenges, including climate change and access to affordable housing. This
report provides an important step towards assessing the state and implications of urban growth
patterns,andidentifiespoliciestosteercitiestowardsinclusiveandgreengrowth.
AngelGurría
OECDSecretary-General
4 RETHINKINGURBANSPRAWL:MOVINGTOWARDSSUSTAINABLECITIES©OECD2018
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgements
T
hisreportisanoutputoftheOECDEnvironmentPolicyCommitteeanditsWorkingParty
onIntegratingEnvironmentalandEconomicPolicies.Thereportwascarriedoutunderthe
overall responsibility of Shardul Agrawala, Head of the Environment and Economy
IntegrationDivision.
ThereportwasauthoredbyIoannisTikoudis,WalidOueslati,AlexandrosDimitropoulos
andLaraEngelfrietoftheOECDEnvironmentDirectorate.WalidOueslatico-ordinatedand
oversawworkonthereport.Theauthorsoftheindividualchapterswere:
Chapter1 AlexandrosDimitropoulos,IoannisTikoudis,WalidOueslati.
Chapter2 IoannisTikoudis,WalidOueslati,AlexandrosDimitropoulos.
Chapter3 IoannisTikoudis,LaraEngelfriet,WalidOueslati,AlexandrosDimitropoulos.
Chapter4 IoannisTikoudis,AlexandrosDimitropoulos,WalidOueslati.
Chapter5 AlexandrosDimitropoulos,IoannisTikoudis,WalidOueslati.
TobiasUdsholtprovidedvaluableinputsandsuggestionsandimprovedthedissemination
ofthework.ElizabethDelBourgo,GabriellaScaduto-Mendola,StéphanieSimonin-Edwards
and JanineTreves provided guidance throughout the editorial process. Katjusha Boffa,
SoojinJeong,JacquelineMaherandAzizaPerriéreprovidedadministrativesupport.
The authors are grateful to the delegates to the Working Party on Integrating
EnvironmentalandEconomicPoliciesandtheEnvironmentPolicyCommitteewhoprovided
valuable comments and feedback during the preparation of the report.The authors would
like to thank the following OECD colleagues for providing insightful comments on earlier
drafts of the report: ShardulAgrawala, RudigerAhrend, Ivan Haščič, Kurt van Dender and
PaoloVeneri. Feedback and comments from Simon Upton (former OECD Environment
Director) are gratefully acknowledged.The authors also greatly appreciate inputs and
comments from Jan Brueckner (University of California at Irvine), Elena Irwin (Ohio State
University), Eric Koomen (VU University Amsterdam), Colin Price (Colin Price Free-lance
AcademicServices),andJunJieWu(OregonStateUniversity).
ThisreportispartofabroaderprojectundertakenbytheOECDEnvironmentDirectorate
onSpatialPlanningInstrumentsandtheEnvironment(SPINE).
RETHINKINGURBANSPRAWL:MOVINGTOWARDSSUSTAINABLECITIES©OECD2018 5

TABLEOFCONTENTS
Table of contents
Executivesummary......................................................... 11
Chapter1.Thepolicychallengeofurbansprawl ................................ 15
1.1.Urbansprawlisdifferentfromurbanisation............................. 16
1.2.Whyisanewperspectiveonurbansprawlneeded? ...................... 17
1.3.Howdoesthenewperspectivepresentedinthisreporthelpaddress
thepolicychallengeofurbansprawl? .................................. 18
1.4.Navigationthroughthereport......................................... 22
References ............................................................. 23
PartI
UrbanSprawl–Definitionandmeasurement
Chapter2.Urbansprawlasamultidimensionalphenomenon.................... 27
2.1.Introduction ........................................................ 28
2.2.Themultipledimensionsofurbansprawl............................... 28
2.3.Summary........................................................... 35
Notes.................................................................. 36
References ............................................................. 36
Chapter3.SprawlinOECDurbanareas ........................................ 37
3.1.Introduction ........................................................ 38
3.2.Backgroundliterature ................................................ 38
3.3.Data ............................................................... 41
3.4.Cross-countryanalysesofurbansprawlindicators....................... 48
3.5.Country-levelanalysis................................................ 65
3.6.Summary........................................................... 66
Notes.................................................................. 67
References ............................................................. 68
Appendix3.A.Mathematicalexpositionofurbansprawlindicators................. 70
Appendix3.B.Countrysheets.................................................. 79
PartII
Consequencesofurbansprawlandimplicationsforpolicymakers
Chapter4.Causesandconsequencesofurbansprawl ........................... 113
4.1.Introduction ........................................................ 114
4.2.Urbansprawldrivers................................................. 114
RETHINKINGURBANSPRAWL:MOVINGTOWARDSSUSTAINABLECITIES©OECD2018 7
TABLEOFCONTENTS
4.3.Effectsofurbansprawl............................................... 122
4.4.Concludingremarks ................................................. 137
Notes.................................................................. 137
References ............................................................. 137
Chapter5.Steeringurbandevelopmenttomoresustainablepathways ............ 143
5.1.Introduction ........................................................ 144
5.2.Takingstepstoreverseunsustainableurbandevelopmentpatterns ........ 145
5.3.Followinganintegratedapproachtomakeurbandevelopment
moresustainable.................................................... 160
5.4.Conclusions ........................................................ 162
Notes.................................................................. 163
References ............................................................. 163
Boxes
3.1. DensificationandsuburbanisationinSantiago,Chile(1990-2014)........... 56
4.1. Thedeterminantsofurbansprawlinmonocentriccities:someempirical
evidence............................................................ 115
5.1. Greenbeltsandurbangrowthboundaries ............................... 147
5.2. Landvaluetaxes .................................................... 150
Tables
2.1. Characterisationofurbansprawl ...................................... 30
3.1. Indicatorsofurbansprawl............................................ 48
4.1. Summaryofstudiesontransportmodechoiceandurbanform............ 124
4.2. Summaryoftherelevantliteratureonurbanformandcostofproviding
publicservices ...................................................... 127
4.3. Residentialandcommercialprimaryenergyconsumption,decomposed
byend-use.......................................................... 128
Figures
2.1. Geographicdistributionofpopulationintwomonocentriccities
withdifferenttotallanduptake........................................ 30
2.2. Geographicdistributionofpopulationintwomonocentriccities
withidenticalpopulationandlanduptake.............................. 31
2.3. Derivationoftheland-allocationfunctionfromthegeographicdistribution
ofpopulationintwocitieswithidenticallanduptakeandpopulation ...... 32
2.4. Derivationofthepopulation-allocationfunctionfromthegeographic
distributionofpopulationintwocitieswithidenticallanduptake
andtotalpopulation ................................................. 33
2.5. Polycentricversusmonocentriccitiesofidenticalpopulation.............. 34
2.6. Urbanareasoflowandhighfragmentation ............................. 35
2.7. Centralisedanddecentralisedurbanareas.............................. 35
3.1. Obtainingmunicipalurbancoresfrommunicipaldelimitations
andpopulationdensitydata .......................................... 42
3.2. Obtainingfunctionalurbanareasfrommunicipalurbancores............. 43
8 RETHINKINGURBANSPRAWL:MOVINGTOWARDSSUSTAINABLECITIES©OECD2018