Residue Reviews: The citrus reentry problem: Research on its causes and effects, and approaches to its minimization PDF
Preview Residue Reviews: The citrus reentry problem: Research on its causes and effects, and approaches to its minimization
THE CITRUS REENTRY PROBLEM: RESEARCH ON ITS CAUSES AND EFFECTS, AND APPROACHES TO ITS MINIMIZATION RESIDUE REVIEWS VOLUME 67 The citrus reentry problem: Research on its causes and effects, and approaches to its minimization RESIDUE REVIEWS The citrus reentry problem: Research on its causes and effects, and approaches to its minimization Editor FRANCIS A. GUNTHER Assistant Editor JANE DAVIES GUNTHER Riverside, California ADVISORY BOARD F. BAR, Berlin, Germany· F. BRO-RAsMUSSEN, S.oborg, Denmark D. G. CROSBY, Davis, California· S. DORMAL-VAN DEN BRUEL, Bruxelles, Belgius C. L. DUNN, Wilmington, Delaware • H. EGAN, London, England H. FREHSE, Leverkeusen-Bayerwerk, Germany • K. FUKUNAGA, Saitama, Japan H. GEISSBUHLER, Basel, Switzerland· G. K. KOHN, Richmond, California H. F. LINSKENS, Nijmegen, The Netherlands· N. N. MELKINOV, Moscow, U.S.S.R. R. MESTEES, Montipellier, France· P. DE PIETRI-TONELLI, Milano, Italy I. S. TAYLOR, Melborne, Australia· R. TRUHAUT, Paris, France I. ZIEGLER, Miinchen, Germany VOLUME 67 SPRINGER-VERLAG NEW YORK HEIDELBERG BERLIN 1977 Coordinating Board of Editors FRANCIS A. GUNTHER, Editor Residue Reviews Department of Entomology University of California Riverside, California 92521 JOHN W. HYLIN, Editor Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Department of Agricultural Biochemistry University of Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii 96822 WILLIAM E. WESTLAKE, Editor Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology P.O. Box 1225 Twain Harte, California 95383 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form without written permission from Springer-Verlag. © 1977 by Springer-Verlag New York Inc. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1977 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 62-18595. The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trade marks, etc. in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as under stood by the Tmde Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by any one. New York: 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 Heidelberg: 6900 Heidelberg 1, Postfach 105280, West Germany ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-7064-2 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-7062-8 DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4684-7062-8 Preface That residues of pesticide and other contaminants in the total environ ment are of concern to everyone everywhere is attested by the reception ac corded previous volumes of "Residue Reviews" and by the gratifYing en. thusiasm, sincerity, and efforts shown by all tve individuals from whom manuscripts have been solicited. Despite much propaganda to the contrary, there can never be any serious questions that pest-control chemicals and food-additive chemicals are essential to adequate food production, manufac ture, marketing, and storage, yet without continuing surveillance and intel ligent control some of those that persist in our foodstuffs could at times con ceivably endanger the public health, Ensuring safety-in-use of these many chemicals is a dynamic challenge, for established ones are continually being displaced by newly developed ones more acceptable to food technologists, pharmacologists, toxicologists, and changing pest-control requirements in progressive food-producing economies. These matters are of genuine concern to increasing numbers of gov ernmental agencies and legislative bodies around the world, for some of these chemicals have resulted in a few mishaps from improper use. Adequate safety-in-use evaluations of any of these chemicals persisting into our foodstuffs are not simple matters, and they incorporate the considered judgments of many individuals highly trained in a variety of complex biologi cal, chemical, food technological, medical, pharmacological, and toxicologi cal disciplines. It is hoped that "Residue Reviews" will continue to serve as an integrat ing factor both in focusing attention upon those many residue matters requir ing further attention and in collating for variously trained readers present knowledge in specific important areas of residue and related endeavors in volved with other chemical contaminants in the total environment. The con tents of this and previous volumes of "Residue Reviews" illustrate these ob jectives. Since manuscripts are published in the order in which they are re ceived in final form, it may seem that some important aspects of residue analytical chemistry, biochemistry, human and animal medicine, legislation, pharmacology, physiology, regulation, and toxicology are being neglected; to the contrary, these apparent omissions are recognized, and some pertinent manuscripts are in preparation. However, the field is so large and the in terests in it are so varied that the editors and the Advisory Board earnestly solicit suggestions of topics and authors to help make this international book-series even more useful and informative. viii Preface "Residue Reviews" attempts to provide concise, critical reviews of timely advances, philosophy, and significant areas of accomplished or needed en deavor in the total field of residues of these and other foreign chemicals in any segment of the environment. These reviews are either general or specific, but properly they may lie in the domains of analytical chemistry and its methodology, biochemistry, human and animal medicine, legislation, pharmacology, physiology, regulation, and toxicology; certain affairs in the realm of food technology concerned specifically with pesticide and other food-additive problems are also appropriate subject matter. The justification for the preparation of any review for this book-series is that it deals with some aspects of the many real problems arising from the presence of any "foreign" chemicals in our surroundings. Thus, manuscripts may encompass those matters, in any country, which are involved in allowing pesticide and other plant-protecting chemicals to be used safely in producing, storing, and shipping crops. Added plant or animal pest-control chemicals or their metabolites that may persist into meat and other edible animal products (milk and milk products, eggs, etc.) are also residues and are within this scope. The so-called food additives (substances deliberately added to foods for flavor, odor, appearance, etc., as well as those inadvertently added dur ing manufacture, packaging, distribution, storage, etc.) are also considered suitable review material. In addition, contaminant chemicals added in any manner to air, water, soil or plant or animal life are within this purview and these objectives. Manuscripts are normally contributed by invitation but suggested topics are welcome. Preliminary communication with the editors is necessary be fore volunteered reviews are submitted in manuscript form. Department of Entomology F.A.G. University of California J.D.G. Riverside, California March 1, 1977 Foreword Worldwide concern in scientific, industrial, and governmental com munities over traces of toxic chemicals in foodstuffs and in both abiotic and biotic environments has justified the present triumvirate of specialized pub lications in this field: comprehensive reviews, rapidly published progress re ports, and archival documentations. These three publications are integrated and scheduled to provide in international communication the coherency es sential for nonduplicative and current progress in a field as dynamic and complex as environmental contamination and toxicology. Until now there has been no journal or other publication series reserved exclusively for the diversified literature on "toxic" chemicals in our foods, our feeds, our geog raphical surroundings, our domestic animals, our wildlife, and ourselves. Around the world immense efforts and many talents have been mobilized to technical and other evaluations of natures, locales, magnitudes, fates, and toxicology of the persisting residues of these chemicals loosed upon the world. Among the sequelae of this broad new emphasis has been an inescap able need for an articlated set of authoritative publications where one could expect to find the latest important world literature produced by this emerg ing area of science together with documentation of pertinent ancillary legis lation. The research director and the legislative or administrative advisor do not have the time even to scan the large number of technical publications that might contain articles important to current responsibility; these individuals need the background provided by detailed reviews plus an assured aware ness of newly developing information, all with minimum time for literature searching. Similarly, the scientist assigned or attracted to a new problem has the requirements of gleaning all literature pertinent to his task, publishing quickly new developments or important new experimental details to inform others of findings that might alter their own efforts, and eventually publish ing all his supporting data and conclusions for archival purposes. The end result of this concern over these chores and responsibilities and with uniform, encompassing, and timely publication outlets in the field of environmental contamination and toxicology is the Springer-Verlag (Heidel berg and New York) triumvirate: Residue Reviews (vol. 1 in 1962) for basically detailed review articles con cerned with any aspects of residues of pesticides and other chemical contaminants in the total environment, including toxicological consid erations and consequences. x Foreword Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (vol. 1 in 1966) for rapid publication of short reports of significant advances and dis coveries in the fields of air, soil, water, and food contamination and pollution as well as methodology and other disciplines concerned with the introduction, presence, and effects of toxicants in the total envi ronment. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (vol. 1 in 1973) for important complete articles emphasizing and describing original experimental or theoretical research work pertaining to the scientific aspects of chemical contaminants in the environment. Manuscripts for Residue Reviews and the Archives are in identical for mats and are subject to review, by workers in the field, for adequacy and value; manuscripts for the Bulletin are not reviewed and are published by photo-offset to provide the latest results without delay. The individual editors of these three publications comprise the Joint Coordinating Board of Editors with referral within the Board of manuscripts submitted to one pub lication but deemed by major emphasis or length more suitable for one of the others. March 1, 1977 Coordinating Board of Editors The citrus reentry problem: Research on its causes and effects, and approaches to its minimization By F. A. Cunther*, Y. Iwata*, C. E. Carman*, and C. A. Smith* Contents I. Introduction......................................................................................... 2 a) Physiological effects of OP pesticides on workers......... .......... .......... ... ....... 3 b) Routes of worker exposure to residues.................................................... 7 c) Dimensions of the reentry problem....................................................... 10 d) Legislative approaches to the reentry problem......................................... 12 e) Measurement of pesticide exposure....................................................... 15 f ) California citrus investigations.............................................................. 19 II. Foliar dislodgable residues....................................................................... 20 a) Background. .................. .... ........ ............................ ... .... ..... .... ........ ... 20 b) Methodology.................................................................................... 25 c) Effect of soil dust type on residue dissipation........................................... 33 d) Effect of climatic factors on residue dissipation......................................... 37 e) Effect of method ofapplication on residue dissipation................................. 62 f ) Effect offormulation on residue dissipation... ............. ........ ... ..... ....... .... ... 67 g) Effect of citrus variety on residue dissipation............................................ 69 h) Reduction ofresidues by tree washing.................................................... 73 i ) Reduction of residues by chemical degradation......................................... 76 III. Fruit rind residues................ ................................................................. 79 IV. Orchard soil dust residues........................................................................ 83 a) Methodology.................................................................................... 83 b) Residues from spray drift and runoff....................................................... 83 c) Sloughable residues........................................................................... 86 d) Effect of climatic factors on residue dissipation......................................... 91 e) Soil moisture and residue dissipation... ................................................... 91 V. Airborne residues .................................................................................. 103 a) Background.............. .......... .... ........ ..... ....... ...... ..... ..... ................ ...... 103 b) Vapor-phase residues.......................................................................... 103 c) Airborne particulate residues............................................................... 104 VI. Methods other than human exposure studies for assessing hazard in treated groves 107 a) Foliar residue estimation...... ..... ....... .... .............. ...... .... ............ .... ....... 110 b) Soil residue estimation..................................................... ................... III c) Odorants as pesticide residue warning indicators....................................... 119 d) Mathematical estimation methods......................................................... 119 Summary and conclusions.............. ....... ...... ...... .............. ..... .............. ... .... ...... 124 References.................. ......................................................... ....................... 127 'Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521. 2 F. A. GUNTHER, Y. IWATA, G. E. CARMAN, AND C. A. SMITH I. Introduction The "reentry problems" arises from agricultural workers becoming ill as a result of entering and working in a field some time after a pesticide applica tion has been made to a crop plant. Although sulfur, with its capacity to cause eye irritations, may be claimed to have caused the first reentry prob lem in agriculture, the problem as currently evaluated is limited to the use of cholinesterase (ChE)-inhibiting organophosphorus (OP) pesticides. The definition of the problem in the future will likely extend to other compounds and other biological effects, such as conjuntivitis and dermatitis. Table I lists the reported cases of post-treatment illnesses to farm workers in California, where most of the incidents in the United States have occurred. A few iso lated incidents have been reported from some of the cotton-and tobacco growing states in this country; there are no documented reports yet from any other country. It is evident from this table that the problem is not a new one and that it appeared hand-in-hand with the introduction of OP pesticides to agriculture. The use of OP pesticides has increased greatly and will probably continue to increase as the use of organochlorine pesticides becomes more restricted. Production and usage of OP pesticides in the United States are expected to continue at a high level for the forseeable future, even though other approaches to pest controls such as biological control techniques, pheromones, and new classes of pesticides will be added to pest-control methods. More intensive farming methods, including OP pesticides, are being introduced to many other countries, and the same problems experi enced in the United States will probably be experienced by these other us ers. Although foods, fibers, and feedstuffs were grown successfully in the United States prior to the introduction of synthetic pesticides in the late 1940s, expectations have changed regarding both quality and quantity of agricultural production as a result of the effectiveness of chemical pest control. Increasing world population requires greater productivity and it is, therefore, unrealistic to halt the use of OP compounds as a solution to the reentry problem (TASK GROUP 1974). QUINBY and LEMMON (1958) documented in detail 11 worker-poisoning episodes involving 70 workers engaged in thinning, picking, cultivating, or irrigating crops of apples, pears, grapes, oranges, and hops treated with one lb or more of parathion!/A . QUINBYet al. (1958) reported on health hazards, including reentry hazards, due to the use ofOP pesticides, primarily methyl parathion and azinphosmethyl, in cotton culture in the delta area of Mississippi. Following an outbreak of illness among peach harvesters in 1963, MILBY et al. (1964) studied 186 peach orchard workers in relation to pesticide application practices and fruit harvesting procedures representative of the orchards in which they worked. Although parathion could be easily recovered from all elements of the orchard environment, it was not present in amounts deemed sufficient to account for the observed illnesses. The toxic parathion alteration product paraoxon was postulated as the prime cause of the outbreak. DAVIES et al. (1976) reported on the occurrence of systemic poisoning in 1970 when 20 workers became ill shortly 'Chemical designations of pesticides mentioned in text are listed in Table XXIII.
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