Research on the Effects of Television Advertising on Children; A Review of the Literature and ...

231 Pages·2007·5.26 MB·English

DOCUMENT RESUME
CS 501 878
ED 145 499
Adler, Richard P.; And Others
AUTHOR
Research on the Effects of Television Advertising on
TITLE
Children; A Review of the Literature and
Recommendations for Future Research.
National Science Foundation, Washington, L.C. RANN
.INSTITUTION
Program.
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Bibliographies; Childhood Attitudes; *Children;
DESCRIPTORS
*Childrens Television; Guidelines; *Literature
Reviews; *Television Commercials; *Television
Research; Television Viewing
*Advertising
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
This report summarizes the present state of knowledge
about the effects of television advertising on children. After a
discussion cf children's television viewing patterns, the report
reviews the existing research relevant to such,issuas as children's
ability to distinguish commercials from program material; the
influence of format and audiovisual techniques on children's
perceptions of commercials; the effects of characters in commercials,
self-concept appeals, premium offers, food advertising, theivolume
and repetition of commercials, and medicine advertising; violence and
unsafe acts in commercials directed to children; the effects of
television advertising on consumer socialization; and television
advertising and parent/child relations. The report then makes
recommendations for future research. Appendixes present evaluations
of 21 individual studies, a statistical profile of the national
research resources currently available for relevant studies, and the
children's advertising guidelines issued,by the National Association
of Broadcasters, Code Authority. A bibliography of relevant
publica.dons is included.
(GW)
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EDUCATION& WELFARE
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATION
TH,S DOCUMENT HAS PEEN REPRO
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Research
or, the
Effects of
Television
Advertising
on Children
A Review of the Literature
and Recommendations for Future Research
Report prepared for:
NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION
Research Applications Directorate
RANNResearch Applied to National Needs
Division of Advanced Productivity Research and Technology
This material is based upon research supported by the
National Science Foundation under Grant No. Apr'75-10126.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recom-
mendations expressed in this publication are those
of the author {s} and do not necessarily reflect the
views of the National Science Foundation.
CONTENTS
Executive Summary
1
I.
Introduction
i.
3
Background: Children's Television Viewing Patterns
II.
I I
H.
Children's Ability to Distinguish Television Commercials from
I.
Program Material
25
The Influence of Format and Audio-Visual Techniques on Children's
2.
Perceptions of Commercial Messages
33
Source Effects and Self-Concept Appeals in Children's Television Ad-
3.
vertising
43
The Effects of Premium Offers in Children's Television Advertising
4.
63
Violence and Unsafe Acts in Television Commercials Directed to
5.
Children
75
The Impact of Proprietary Medicine Advertising on Children ....
93
6.
The Effects of Children's Television Food Advertising
99
7.
The Effects of the Volume and Repetition of Television Commercials
109
8.
The Effects of Television Advertising on Consumer Socialization ....
127
9.
Television Advertising and Parent-Child Relations
133
10.
Summary of Research Findings
I I.
145
III.
Recommendations for Future Research
12.
151
Appendices
A.
Key Studies
155
Research Roster (Summary)
189
B.
NAB and NAD Children's Advertising Guidelines
C. 193
3
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hor sale to, the Superintendent of Documents. t S tr,osernment Printing (Kee
Washington, D.0 20402 - Price $3 75
stock No. 038-000-00336-4
4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to express our appreciation to the RANN program of the National. Science Foundation for its sup=
and Rol-
port of the preparation of this report, and to NSF Program Officers, Allen Shinn, Charles Brownstein,
land Johnson, for their encouragement and advice. The conclusions and recommendations contained in this
report are those of its authors, however, and do not represent the views of the National Science Foundation.
This project could not have been completed without the assistance of many members of the staffs of our
respective institutions Harvard University, the University of Pennsylvania. the University of Hartford, the
Marketing Science Institute, and the Aspen Institute. Also too numerous to acknowledge individually are those
who took the time to respond to the questionnaire which led to formulation of our list oc issues, and those who
supplied information for our research roster.
We are also grateful to the Children's Advertising Review Unit of the Council of Better Business Bureaus,
Inc., and to its director, Emilie Griffin, for aiding in preparation of the Bibliography.
Finally, we are particularly indebted to the members of the project's Advisory Committee whose names ap-
individually by reading and
pear below. In addition to meeting with us on several occasions, they contributed
commenting on earlier drafts of this report. Although they are not responsible for the report's contents, our ad-
visors played a significant role in its development
Advisory Committee
Ithiel de Sola Pool
Seymour Banks
Department of Political Science
Vice President in charge of
Massachusetts Institute of
Media Research
Technology
Leo Burnett, US A.
Eli A Rubinstein
Peggy Charren
Medical School Health Sciences Center
President
State University of New York at
Action for Children's Television
Stony Brook
Alberta Siegel
Walter J. Clayton, Jr.
nepartment of Psychiatry
Director of Corporate Commodity Planning
Stanford University Medical Center
Hershey Food Corporation
Eddie Smardan
Jam A. Dimling, Jr.
E. Smardan and Associates, Inc
Vice President and Research Director
National Association of Broadcasters
Lawrence Zacharias
Mary Gardiner Jones
Division of Special Projects
Vice President, Consumer Affairs
Federal Trade Commission
Western Union
Robertson, The Wharton School.
Thomas S.
Principal Investigator
Ugly ersity of Penns y Rama
Richard P Adler, Graduate School of Education.
John R. Rossuer, 1 he Wharton School, t ni et suN
Harvard I ' my crsity
of Pennsylvania
Institute and
Scott Ward, Marketing Science
Senior Investigaton
Graduate School of Business. Harvard U no, ersit
Bernard Z Friedlander, Department of Psychology.
linty ersuy of Hartford
Gerald S. Lesser, Graduate School of Education.
Ronald Eaber, Marketing Science Institute
Harvard University
David Pillemer, Graduate School of Education,
Laurene Meringoff, Graduate School of Education,
Harvard Universitv
Harvard University
J
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The report has four components
The effects of television advertising on children
have been a matter of concern for over a decade
( I ) identification of major policy issues of cur-
That children are a special audience deserving of
rent interest,
special protection was formally recognized by the
1961, when the National
(2) review of existing research organized around
television industry
in
these issues,
Association of Broadcasters adopted its Toy Adver-
tising Guidelines The NAB subsequently expanded
(3) recommendations for future policy-relevant
its self-regulatory guidelines to include all catego-
research; and
ries of television advertising intended primarily for
(4) compilation of a national roster of
children Consumer advocacy groups, including Ac-
advertising and
researchers on television
tion for Children's Television and the Council on
Media, Merchandising and Children, have raised
children.
numerous issues over the past few years related to
Two major conclusions emerge from our review.
advertising and children Partly in response to com-
The first is a general evaluation, based on the availa-
plaints from these organizations, the Federal Com-
munications Commission and the Federal Trade
ble evidence, of the impact of television advertising
on the child viewer The second relates to the role of
Commission have considered such issues as the
amount of advertising to children, the use of hero
research in policymaking.
figures or program personalities as product present-
First, it is clear from the available evidence th it
ers, and the use of premium offers in commercials
television advertising does influence children.
In 1975, a second self-regulatory code for adver-
Research has demonstrated that children attend to
tisers was established through the Children's Adver-
and learn from commercials, and that advertising is
tising Guidelines of the Council of Better Business
at least moderately successful in creating positive at-
Bureaus' N at lo na Advertising Division (NAD)
titudes toward and the desire for products adver-
tised. The variable that emerges most clearly across
Academic research on the effects of television ad-
numerous studies as a strong determinant of
vertising on children is relatively recent. However,
children's perception of television advertising is the
policymakers both inside and outside government
child's age. Existing research clearly establishes that
seem to be giving increasing recognition to the value
The results of
children become more skilled in evaluating televi-
of empirical studies in th:s field
research have already had some impact on
sion advertising as they grow older, and that to treat
all children from 2 to 12 as a homogeneous group
policymaking; e g., generally, in the formulation of
the NAD's 1975 guidelines for
advertising to
masks important, perhaps crucial differences. These
findings suggest that both researchers and
children, and more specifically, in the recent FTC
policymakers give greater attention to the problems
consideration of the use of premiums in children's
to be the most
of younger viewers, since they appe
advertising
vulnerable.
The report summarized here was supported by the
From a policy standpoint, the most immediately
RANT Program of the National Science Foundation
relevant research is that which either documents the
to assess the current state of knowledge about the
effects of specific advertising practices alleged to be
effects of television advertising on children and to
fill gaps in that
misleading or unfair to children's perceptions, or
recommend further research to
which tests the efficacy of regulatory provisions in
knowledge. Because of the limited amount of exist-
preventing such abuses. To cite a single example of
ing research, we have not attempted in this report to
the latter, several recent studies have shown that
retch definitive verdicts on all of the effects of
The current state of
children's ability to understand and remember dis-
advertising on children
claimers required by industry codes (e g., "some
knowledge is still inadequate in some areas, but is
assembly required" for a toy) is relate,' to how the
sufficient in others to provide meaningful guidance
disclaimer is worded and presented
to policymakers
Second, in terms of the ro!e of research in
Other problems arose when groups or individuals
policymaking, we recognize that research, no matter
stated their concerns too broadly or too vaguely to
how extensive and well conducted, will Inevitably be
be amenable to empirical testing. Thus, Issues were
but one element in determining policies and prac-
often incompletely stated, alleging an effect without
tices. Ethical, legal, economic, and political con-
a specific cause (e.g., "children cannot understand
continue to demand attention
siderations
will
commercials"), or a cause withour a specific effect
Nevertheless, policies formulated in the absence or
(e.g., "premium offers are unfair"). As far as possi-
ignorance of research findings run the risk of being
ble, we have stated Issues as connections between
inappropriate, ineffective, or unfair. Thus, research
specific advertising practices and specific outcomes
can guide policy by providing concrete information
(Including where appropriate such mediating varia-
on the actual impact of television advertising on
bles as age, sex, race, or level of viewing). Other
children. In the long run, such research can provide
issues may be legitimate but are probably matters for
factual guideposts for unecting policy
essential
value judgment, not empirical testing.
toward adequate safeguards against economic
ex-
ploitation of these young viewers.
Given these considerations, we derived our final
list of ten issues which (a) were of greatest interest to
The following sections summarize our identifica-
the parties Involved; (b) were amenable to empirical
tion of policy issues, review of existing research, and
testing; and (c) offered some prospect of concrete
recommendations for future research A national
policy action based on empirical findings. The first
research roster is desc-.bed in Appendix B.
seven issues deal with particular advertising prac-
tices which might be altered if empirical evidence
IDENTIFICATION OF THE ISSUES
were to suggest that alteration is advisable. These
are
We structured this review of existing research
around specific policy Issues. This allowed us not
Children's ability to distinguish television
1.
only to evaluate research technically but to discuss
commercials from program material.
its relevance to policy concerns as well.
The influence of format and audio-visual
2.
techniques on ch.ldren's perceptions of com-
To develop our list of issues, we surveyed major
mercial messages.
policy statements from government, Industry, and
Source effects and self-concept appeals in
3.
consumer groups. A preliminary list drawn from
children's advertising.
these statements was then circulated for comment to
The effects of advertising containing pre-
4.
advertisers, politicians, regulators, industry groups,
mium offers.
consumer groups, and academics, and a number of
The effects of violence or unsafe acts in
5
key individuals were also personally interviewed.
television commercials
The impact on children of proprietary
6
These responses revealed several obstacles to
r........;:cine advertising.
drawing up our final list of issues. There was no
The effects on children of television food ad-
7.
universal consensus on what the "real" policy issues
vertising
are, nor on the definition of "children's advertising."
Since existing industry codes apply only to commer-
Three other Issues deal with possible longer term
cials shown during programs intended primarily for
consequences of exposure to television advertising,
children, this means that they apply only to Saturday
or with mediators of the effects of advertising on
morning television and a few other programs (e.g.,
children:
Captain Kangaroo, ABCs Afterschool Specials)
However, these programs account for no more than
15 percent of the weekly television viewing of
The effects of volume and repetition of televi-
8.
children 2-12 years old. Therefore, we included
sion commercials.
issues encompassing all advertising to which sub-
The Impact of television advertising on con-
9.
stantial numbers of children are exposed, not just to
sumer socialization.
commercials specifically intended for children and
10. Television advertising and parent-child rela-
shown within children's programing
tions.
7
ii
tion measures, however, are not a sufficient indica-
REVIEW OF RESEARCH
tor of children's distinguishing abilities; other, more
direct measures must be used during actual viewing
Existing research can and does document effects
of televised sequences. Audio and video separation
on children of a variety of specificivertising prac-
devices used by the major networks have not been
tices. Future studies will undoubtedly provide addi-
tested, although ; study of a verbal announcement as
tional information on these effects
However,,
a separAtion device (used by some Post-Newsweek
whether a particular effect shuild be considered
stations) found that It did not alter rung children's
"positive," "negative," or "neutral" is not a question
visual attention patterns. The effectiveness of
that can be resolved by empirical research, but is a
aiding children's
the judgment of
various separation devices
in
be determined
by
matter
to
(For example, research may
ability to distinguish commercials from programs is
policymakers
an open question at tnis point.
demonstrate that awareness of a premium offer pre-
sented in a commercial plays a significant role in
some Lbildren's product choices But whether or not
2. Format and Audio-Visual Techniques
the premium itself is considered a "legitimate" pro-
duct attribute is a matter of opinion.)
Analysis. Many audio-visual techniques in com-
meruals are simply aimed at gaining and holding
effectsit"
At present, no single, widely accepted conceptual
children's attention, policy issues arise over
or theoretical framework exists for determining the
other than attention. Visual techniques which have
policy implications of empirical research results.
drawn regulatory attention are those which tend to
There are, to be sure, several broad principles on
misrepresent the appearance of children's products
which current regulations are based. The FTC has a
of exaggerate product performance. Descriptions of
legislative mandate to ensure that advertising (in-
product characteristics (e.g., energy claims) and
cluding adver Bing to children) be neither "decep-
children's understanding of required disclaimers or
tive" nor "unfair"; the NAD guidelines are intended
accessory disclosures are also at issue.
to "ensure that advertising directed to children is
truthful, accurate, and fair to children's percep-
Evidence. Visual or verbal misrepresentations
tions." These are admirable standards, but if future
and exaggerations are regarded as deceptive per se
research is to be designed with clear policy rele-
and their use prohibited accordingly, without any
vance, these principles will have to be defined in
need to document actual deception experienced by
specific, operational terms. Even then, interpreta-
children. However, little is known about children's
tion of empirical results will still, ultimately, in-
via
comprehension of product claims presented
In the
volve value judgments by policymakers
techniques that are easily understood by adults.
following summaries, we have indicated, where ap-
Even older children have been shown to have
propriate, which matters have been or can be ad-
difficulty understanding certain types of claims:
notably superlatives, comparatives, and parity
dressed by research and which cannot.
claims. Research on audio and video disclaimers
1. Program-Commercial Separation
report the predictable but important findings that
video disclaimers alone are insufficient for younger,
Analysis. The FCC and the NAB have recognizei
nonreading children, that dual audio-video claims
that children may have difficulty in distinguishing
communicate most effectively, even for older
commercials from program material. The NAB code
children; and that simplified wording significantly
now requires broadcasters to use "an appropriate
affects comprehension. This research should lead to
device" to separate commercials from surrounding
tighter regulation of disclaimers, an area which is
programs in children's program hours.
already quite well regulated.
Evidence. A ntmber of studies have documented
3. Source Effects and Seit-Concept Appeals
that children under eight years of age have substan-
tial difficulty in comprehending the difference in
Analysis. Characters as well as products appear in
purpose between commercials and programs. One
most children's commercials. Existing policy
apparent indicator of this is that younger children's
prohibits the use of certain characters as product
visual attention declines less when commercials ap-
presenters, e.g., celebrities and authority figures,
pear than does that of older children Visual atten-
8
iii
and prohibits the use of program characters as pre-
Evidence. The allegation that premiums are ad ir-
senters in commercials within or adjacent to their
relevant product characteristic is a value judgment
own programs ("host
selling"). Other presenter
and not amenable to empirical testing. On the other
characteristics, particularly race, sex, and occupa-
hand, we can test the allegations that premiums dis-
tion, may contribute to the development of socially
tract children from considering legitimate product
stereotyped perceptions This topic also includes
attributes and that they multiply difficulty of choice
self-concept appeals, which promise or imply per-
between brands. Only the fist of these allegations
sonal benefits to children from use or ownership of
has been tested, and only on a limited basis Results
the product.
suggest that inclusion of a premium in a commercial
does not seem to distract children from c
pro-
Evidence. A number of studies have demonstrated
duct attributes (as measured by recall of the content
that the mere appearance of a character with a prod-
of the commercial), nor does the premium appear to
uct can significantly alter children's evaluation of
Increase children's evaluation of the product. These
the product with the evaluation shiftli.g pos.tively or
negative results should be interpreted with caution,
negatively, dependiro on children's evaluation of
however, as they are based primarily on a single
the "endorser." This raises a potential fairness issue
studs in which only one commercial was tested. The
as to whether endorsement should be regarded as a
issue of whether premiums increase difficulty of
legitimate basis for promoting products to children.
choke between brands or
choice by
facilitate
differentiating' the total product package has "not
The single available study on the "host selling"
been investigated
issue suggested that in- program placement of a com-
merciaLcontaining program characters was no more
5. Violence and Unsafe Acts
effective in stimulating children's desire
for the
product than nonadjacent placement. Only one com-
Analysis Although violence and unsafe acts ap-
mercial was tested, however. The broader issues of
pear infrequently in commercials directed to
whether character usage in commercials contributes
children, they warrant special attention because of
to social stereotypes remains unresolved The poten-
the potential seriousness of the effects that may be
tial
is apparent from content
for
stereotyping
involved. A major issue is whether cartoon or make-
analyses of sex and race representation in children's
believe violence, the types most likely to be used in
commercials, and secondary research (on television
commercials, are harmless compared with realistic
programs) has demonstrated that stereotyped beliefs
violence. A largely unrecognized issue is the poten-
result from heavy exposure to television program-
tially interactive role of commercials during violent
ing among adults.
Finally, self-concept appeals
programs. The main issue concerning unsafe act
also have not been well researched. Although cer-
portrayals is whether they are justified in certain cir-
tain appeals undoubtedly imply benefits to
cumstances, such as safety messages or public service
children's health or social status, none a the few
announcements.
studies on this topic has actually incorporated self-
concept measures
Evidence. Children as young as four years old
seem to he able to distinguish realistic from make
4. Premiums
believe or cartoon violence. Despite many neutral or
equivocal outcomes, and despite a tendency for
Analysis. Premiums are heavily employed in com-
weaker effects when the violence is animated, post-
mercials for certain children's products, notably
viewing aggression has sometimes been demon-
cereals. The FTC has alleged that premiums are an
strated with all three types of portrayals. Although
Irrelevant product characteristic, that they distract
the extent of antisocial behavior attributable to
children from considering legitimate product at-
television violence is still unclear, there seems to be
tributes, and that they multiply the difficulty of
sufficient risk in this type of content to support cur-
choice between brands. Defenders argue that pre-
rent code prohibitions on appeals to violence in
miums may actually facilitate the choice between
commercials directed to children Commercials, in
otherwise fairly similar brands, and that premiums
general, may also interact with violent programing.
constitute a legitimate product attribute since they
Some recent research suggests that commercial in-
are part of the "total product package
terruptions may heighten viewer arousal through
9
iv
that
children's television advertising Critics allege
frustration and increase an immediate propensity
limited
the food products advertised represented a
argues to
toward violence. However, other research
effectiveness of
range of foods and that, due to the
These
the contrary, suggesting a pacifying effect
habits and
lood commercials, children's eating
-n-thy of furCner study, especially
phenomena are
nutritional-values are being adversely biased toward
given that violent and "adult theme" programs are
alleged that
the products advertised. It is further
watched by many children outside of code-covered
promotional characteristics such as sweetness, en-
portrayal
viewing periods Finally, evidence on the
children to use
joyment, and premiums encourage
commercials promoting
of unsafe acts
in
(e g ,
in making food
criteria
nutritionally irrelevant
safety) demonstrates that imitation depends not on
choices The FTC is currently considering a rule re-
whether the acts are sanctioned or admonished in the
nutritional informa-
quiring expanded disclosure of
commercial, but on whether chAren expect to be
products
tion in commercials for food
personally rewarded or punished for the behavior
This suggests thlt unsafe act portrayals may be
Empirical evidence attests to the
Evidence
hazardous, even in context, and should probably be
general effectiveness of .Jod avertising to children.
avoided whenever possible
While various statistics have been cited by parties
U.S.
concerned with the nutritional health of the
6. Proprietary Drug Advertising
directly
populace, including children, no evidence
links televised food commercials to these statistics
Analysis. Although commercials for over-the-
have not yet been con-
since the appropriate studies
children
counter (OTC) drugs are aimed at adults,
is
ducted to examine the alleged linkage. The same
when viewing other
are exposed to such advertising
advertising messages
true of the allegation that food
than- children's programing It has been alleged that
irrelevant
encourage children's use of nutritionally
cumulative exposure to nonprescription, OTC drug
is evidence
criteria in making food choices. There
advertising may promote a distorted sense of health
that children are capable of learning nutritional in-
and illness, a tendency to rely too heavily on
commercials, and
formation when included
in
proprietary medicines, and may contribute to the use
preliminary research has been undertaken to
of illicit drugs. Defenders of OTC drug advertising
develop graphic devices to communicate nutritional
child
argue that drug advertising is never directed to
needed to ensure
content of foods, further research is
audiences, and that drug advertising is intended to
comprehensible
that this information is adequately
encourage the proper use of medicines.
value judgment
to children. At a broader level is the
of whether food advertisers should be held account-
Evidence. Most research on the effects of OTC
information
able for dissemination of nutritional
drug advertising has focused on teenagers rather
beyond that intrinsic to their own products.
than children under age 12. No positive relationship
has been found among teenagers between televised
8. Volume and Repetition
drug advertising exposure and illicit drug use, but
moderate positive relationships have been reported
Analysis. Critics of children's advertising are con-
proprietary
among teenagers betweer exposure to
cerned about the cumulative effects of commercials
drug advertising and reported usage of proprietary
reduce to four main
on children. These concerns
medicines. Results of the limited research with
heavy viewing
issues long-term effects (with age);
children suggest that exposure to OTC dreg adver-
dis-
effects (within age groups), clustered versus
tising does, to a certain extent, affect children's at-
tributed placement of commercials within programs;
titudes toward illness and medication, with heavy
commercials.
and the effects of repetition of single
illness,
TV viewers perceiving a greater frequency of
believing more in the efficacy of medicines and being
Evidence. The clearest findings in research on
Further research which
snore receptive to their use.
children and advertising are that children's unders-
should have significant implications t >r OTC drug
tanding of commercials increases with age (and thus
advertising policy is currently in progress.
liking
with cumulative exposure) and that children's
this in-
of commercials decreases with age. Despite
7. Food Advertising
in-
creased understanding of commercials and
advertising,
creasingly negative attitude toward
Analysis. Food products (including beverages and
behavioral evidence suggests, especially when age
snacks) represent the most prevalent category of