Research Methods: From Theory to Practice PDF
Preview Research Methods: From Theory to Practice
. Research Methods i \' f FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE ft Ben Gorvine (cid:127) Karl Rosengren (cid:127) Lisa Stein (cid:127) Kevin Biolsi * OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Research Methods FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE Ben Gorvine NorthwesternUniversity Karl Rosengren University ofWisconsin—Madison Lisa Stein Northwestern University Kevin Biolsi KB Statistical Services NewYorK Oxford OXFORDUNIVERSITYPRESS OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. ItfurtherstheUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch, scholarship,andeducationbypublishingworldwide.Oxfordisa registeredtrademarkofOxfordUniversityPressintheUKand certainothercountries. PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyOxfordUniversityPress 198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NY10016,UnitedStatesofAmerica. ©2018byOxfordUniversityPress FortitlescoveredbySection112oftheUSHigherEducation OpportunityAct,pleasevisitwww.oup.com/us/heforthe latestinformationaboutpricingandalternateformats. 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Brief Contents PREFACE XVIII CHAPTER 1 Introductionto Research Methods 1 CHAPTER 2 The EthicalImperative 25 CHAPTER 3 Negotiatingthe Institutional Review Board Process 51 CHAPTER 4 Starting Your Research 71 CHAPTER 5 FocusingYour QuestionandChoosinga Design 93 CHAPTER 6 Developing Your ResearchProtocol 119 CHAPTER 7 Survey and Interview Approaches 145 CHAPTER 8 Experimental Designs 177 CHAPTER 9 Variationson Experimental Designs 205 CHAPTER 10 Observation,Case Studies, Archival Research, and Meta-analysis 227 CHAPTER 11 Neuroscience Methods 253 CHAPTER12 Researchover Age andTime 279 CHAPTER 13 AnalyzingYour Data I:An Overview 301 CHAPTER 14 AnalyzingYour Data II:Specific Approaches 333 CHAPTER 15 WritingUp Your Results 373 CHAPTER16 PublishingYour Research 401 APPENDIX 423 GLOSSARY 424 REFERENCES 437 CREDITS 455 AUTHOR INDEX 457 SUBJECTINDEX 462 Ml Preface xviii Introductionto ResearchMethods 1 INSIDERESEARCH: MarthaArterberry,DepartmentofPsychology,ColbyCollege 1 Why YouShould Careabout Research Methods 4 MethodsforEvaluatingClaims 4 TheExtraordinaryCoffee Bean 5 TrusttheExperts 6 - MEDIAMATTERS: TheInsistentAutism VaccineMyth 8 Readarvd EvaluatePast Research 10 SearchforConvergence 10 HowtoEvaluatetheQualityof Reported Research 10 PreliminaryFindings ii PublishedResearch 12 HowCognitiveBiasesand HeuristicsAffectYourJudgment 13 ConductingYourOwnResearchtoEvaluateClaims 16 Distinction betweenScienceand Pseudoscience 16 TheGoalsofScience 17 TheScientificMethod 17 Objective 17 Consistent 18 Public 18 BasedonEstablishedPrinciplesandPastKnowledge 18 DrivenbyaQuestforKnowledgeandTruth 19 Distinction between Applied and BasicResearch 20 The Research ProcessandOrganization of This Book 21 CHAPTER 2 The EthicalImperative 25 INSIDERESEARCH: JenniferLansford,DukeUniversitySanford SchoolofPublicPolicy 25 WhyEthicsMatter 28 MEDIAMATTERS; DavidReimcr 30 iv Contents CompletingEthicsTraining 31 HistoryofEthics 32 TheNurembergCodeof1947 32 TheDeclarationofHelsinki 33 TheNationalInstitutesofHealth 33 TuskegeeSyphilisStudy 34 HistoryofEthicalIssuesinPsychology 35 MEDIAMATTERS: TheHighestOrderofHypocrisy 39 TheBelmontReport 40 APAGuidelines 41 TheInstitutionalReviewBoard 41 OrganizationoftheIRB 41 TheCommittee 41 StaffMembers 42 CollaborativeResearch 42 MissionCreep 43 IRBReform 44 DefiningResearch 44 EthicalConsiderationsforResearchwithNonhumanAnimals 46 WhyUseAnimalsinResearch? 47 WhatAnimalsAreUsedinResearch? 47 HowAreAnimalsProtected? 48 Negotiatingthe Institutional Review BoardProcess 51 INSJDERESEARCH: KathleenMurphy,IRBManager,NorthwesternUniversity 51 TypeofIRBReview 54 StepsintheIRBProcess 54 Step1:CompleteEthicsTraining 54 Step2:PrepareProposal 55 Abstract 56 Protocol 56 IdentificationofParticipants 57 InformedConsent 57 MEDIAMATTERS: WhenInformedConsentCanMeanLifeorDeath 59 Step3:SubmitProposalfor Review 60 WaystoSpeedtheApprovalProcess 60 KeepingProperRecords 61 EthicalChallengesinResearch 62 Contents ParticipantCoercion 62 SpecialPopulations 63 Prisoners 63 Children 63 NonhumanAnimals 64 ParticipantRisk 64 AS5£HM£Depression 64 ReplicationofMilgram'sObedienceStudyandtheStanfordPrison Experiment 65 ConflictofInterest 66 Deception 66 IllegalActivities 67 InternetResearch 68 CHAPTER 4 Starting Your Research 71 INSIDERESEARCH: DanielSimons,DepartmentofPsychology, UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign 71 ChooseaResearchTopic 74 HittheBooks 74 SearchforResearchArticles 75 TheArtofReadingResearchArticles 76 Abstract 77 Introduction/LiteratureReview 77 Method 77 Results 77 Discussion 78 References 7S TakeaVarietyofPsychologyClasses 78 GetInvolvedinanOngoingResearchProject 79 MEDIAMATTERS: MuchAttentionPaidtoInattentionalBlindness 80 LetTheoryGuideYour Research 82 TheoryOperatesonDifferentLevels 82 TheRoleofTheoryinFormingResearchQuestions 84 TheoryMayShapeHypotheses 85 TheoryandMethodologyReinforceOneAnother 85 InterplaybetweenTheoryandAnalysisStrategy 87 TheoryCanLeadtotheProblemofConfirmationBias 89 AvoidCommonProblemsinStartingYourResearch 90 Contents CHAPTER 5 FocusingYour Questionand Choosing aDesign 93 INSIDERESEARCH: DianeC.Gooding,DepartmentofPsychology, Universityof Wisconsin-Madison 93 DefineYourGoal 97 DefinetheResearchQuestion 97 RecognizeBackgroundAssumptions 98 FormTestableHypotheses 98 EnsureyourHypothesisIsFalsifiable 99 MEDIAMATTERS: BabyGeniuses 100 IdentifyVariables 102 ChooseaResearchMethodology 103 QuantitativeResearchApproaches 104 ExperimentalMethods IOS NonexperimentalMethods 107 QualitativeResearchApproaches 108 TheRoleofTheory 109 DescriptionversusInterpretation 110 RealismversusRelativism 110 TheRoleofPolitics 111 AdvantagesofMultipleApproachesandMethods 111 ReliabilityandValidity 112 RaisingChildren'sIntelligence:WhatWorks? 114 CHAPTER 6 DevelopingYour Research Protocol 119 INSIDERESEARCH: AmyBohnert,DepartmentofClinicaland DevelopmentalPsychology,LoyolaUniversityChicago 119 ObtainYourSample 122 PopulationsversusSamples 122 RepresentativeSamples 123 DoINeedaRepresentativeSample? 123 TheCollegeSophomore*Problem”? 125 LabelingPopulations 125 MEDIAMATTERS* WEIRDScience 126 RandomSamples 128 ProblemswithRandomSampling 129 AlternativestoRandomSampling 129 MEDIAMATTERS: NateSilverandthe2012Election 130 Contents NonprobabilitySamples 130 OnlineSamples 131 PayingParticipants 132 ChooseYourMeasures 132 ScalesofMeasurement 133 NominalScale 134 OrdinalScale 135 IntervalScale 135 RatioScale 135 SelectYourScale 136 ReliabilityandValidity 136 ConductaPower Analysis 137 ProspectiveversusRetrospectivePower Analysis 137 WhyIsPowerOftenUnderemphasized? 138 WhyDoesPowerMatter? 139 FormulateanAnalysisPlan 139 TheArt ofJugglingChoices 141 ParticipantRecruitmentIssues 141 TimeConstraints 141 MoneyConstraints 142 EquipmentConstraints 142 MaketheBestChoices 142 Survey and Interview Approaches 145 INSIDERESEARCH: JohnSchulenberg,DepartmentofPsychology, UniversityofMichigan 145 ThePervasivenessof Surveys 148 MEDIAMATTERS: *IheProfligateToothFairy 149 SurveysversusInterviews 151 TheProsandConsofSurveys 152 AdvantagesofSurveys 152 EfficientandEconomical 152 LargeSampleSizes 153 AllureofAnonymity 153 Flexibility 153 DisadvantagesofSurveys 154 SelectionBias 154 ParticipationBiases 155 NonresponseBias 155 Contents - Self selectionBias ISS MotivatedRespondentBias ISS ExperimenterBias ISS FatigueEffectsandAttrition 156 SocialDesirabilityBias 1S6 PotentialThreatstoValidityandPossibleSolutions 157 RespondentsWhoDoNotUnderstandQuestions 1S7 RespondentsWhoAnsweredFraudulently 157 RespondentswithanAgenda 1S8 CarelessRespondents 158 TheProsandConsof Interviews 159 AdvantagesofInterviews 160 RichData 160 ConfirmationofParticipantUnderstanding 160 DetectingCarelessInterviewResponding 160 DisadvantagesofInterviews 161 InefficientUseofTimeandResources 161 InterviewerEffects 161 ResponseBias 162 Standardization 162 TheValueofCollectingDataonSocioeconomicStatus 162 UsinganExistingSurveyversusCreatingaNewOne 163 StepstoBuildingYourOwnQuestionnaire 165 QuestionWording 165 SimplicityIsGoodf 165 WriteQuestionsattheAppropriateReadingLevel 166 Avoid Double-barreledQuestions 166 AvoidLoadedQuestions 167 BePositive! 167 ResponseTypes 168 Open-endedversusClosed-endedResponses 168 LikertScalesandResponseFormat 169 EvaluatingYourSurvey 171 ObtainFeedback 171 ConductPilotTesting 171 AssessInstrumentReliability 172 Test-retestReliability 172 Parallel-formsReliability 172 InternalConsistency 172 UseFactorAnalysisforAdvancedScaleConstruction 173
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