Replication and Fabrication of Crafted and Natural Artifacts by Reverse Engineering using Single

406 Pages·2017·22.61 MB·English

by  John Kaufman

Replication and Fabrication of Crafted and Natural
Artifacts by Reverse Engineering using
Single Camera Photogrammetry

John Kaufman

A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD

Lancaster University

July 2018
Disclaimer

I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and it contains no material
previously published or written by another person, to the best of my knowledge
and belief, nor material which has been accepted for the award of any other
degree or diploma of the University or other institute of higher learning except
where due acknowledgements have been made in the text.

This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

Author: …………………………………………… J Kaufman

Date:

II
Acknowledgements

The author of this thesis would like to thank the following individuals and
organisations for supporting this research activity:

Dr Allan Rennie for his supervision and guidance throughout the period of time I
have been studying at Lancaster University as an off campus student. All
members of the Lancaster Product Development Unit are thanked for their
guidance and for providing many of the fabricated models. I would also like to
thank the members of the University Study Skills Unit who provided the author
with help and guidance when requested.

This research would not have been possible without the use of the computer
software supplied for the duration of the research by Agisoft’s PhotoScan Pro®,
Netfabb’s Studio Pro5® and AutoDesSys’ form-Z pro®, for which I am very grateful.
Thanks also to Mcor Technologies for the fabrication of two models, the Eureka
Cat and Eureka Man, using their Iris® Colour printer and to 3D Systems for the
fabrication on their ProJet 660® of the Clay Head, Egyptian Bowl and Sobekhotep
models.

Thanks is also given to the staff at Kendal Museum, Kendal, Cumbria for their help
and collaboration, use of their Egyptian artifacts, and workshop space during the
data collection phase.

Finally, thanks to my wife, Sandra, who supported and encouraged my project
over many years spending many hours proof reading my manuscript.

III
Abstract
Photogrammetry has been used for recording objects for well over one hundred
and fifty years. Modern photogrammetry, or digital image capture, can be used
with the aid of a single medium range Digital Single Lens Reflex (DSLR) camera,
to transform two-dimensional (2D) images into three-dimensional (3D) Computer
Aided Design (CAD) spatial representations, and together with the use of additive
manufacturing (AM) or 3D Printing technology, geometric representations of
original cultural, historic and geological artifacts can be fabricated using a process
known as Non-invasive Reverse Engineering. Being able to replicate such objects
is of great benefit to educationalists and, for example, curators; if the original
object cannot be handled because it is fragile, then replicas can give the handler a
chance to experience the size, texture and weight of rare objects. Photogrammetry
equipment is discussed, the objective being simplicity of execution for eventual
realisation of physical products such as the artifacts discussed in this thesis. All
the digital photographic data in the research has been captured either with the use
of a mid-range DSLR camera or a compact “point and shoot” camera. As the
processing power of computers has increased and become more widely available,
and with the use of user-friendly software programs it is now possible to digitally
combine multi-view photographs, taken from 360° around the object, into 3D CAD
representational virtual images, transforming these so they are ready for AM
machines to produce replicated models of the originals.
Over 50 objects were used in this research and the results documented: from the
reproduction of small modern clay sculptures; 3,500-year-old Egyptian artifacts;
household vases, figurines and bottles; fossils, shells and rocks, although not all
successfully recreated. A variety of AM technologies have been employed, mostly
monochromatic but including colour AM machines, to fabricate the models where
good 3D models have been obtained.
A bench-mark test was performed to ascertain the justification for the additional
time and computer power required to produce ultra-high resolution digital
images for the models to be fabricated on high resolution AM technology, in
order to test the best possible limits of artifact reproduction. An in-depth case
study on four problematic artifacts was also conducted using amongst other
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methods, RAW photographic images as opposed to camera ready Jpeg
images; the results were analysed for comparison and conclusions were drawn.

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Table of Contents
Disclaimer II
Acknowledgements III
Abstract IV
Table of Contents VI
List of Figures XIV
List of Tables XXV
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms XXVII
Appendices Contents see separate booklet XXX
Outputs XXXII
Contribution to Knowledge XXXIII

Chapter 1: Introduction and Background History 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Overview 1
1.3 Research Objectives 1
1.4 Digital Image Capture 3
1.5 Software programs 3
1.6 Headings and Contents for Main Body of Thesis 4
1.7 Introduction to Background History 6
1.8 Aristotle and Euclid 7
1.9 Camera Obscura 7
1.10 The Next 500 Years 9
1.11 Capturing the Photographic Image – the Early Pioneers 10
1.12 Photographic Cameras 11
1.12.1 Stereoscopic Images 11
1.12.2 Photogrammetry 15
1.12.3 Aerial Photography 15
VI
1.12.4 Le Corbusier 15
1.12.5 Spy in the Sky 17
1.13 Birth of Digital Cameras 17
1.14 The Ruby Red Beam 18
1.15 Laser Scanners 18
1.16 Personal Computers 19
1.17 Development of LS and CAD 19
1.18 Cost of Laser Scanners 22
1.19 Virtual 3D Representational Images 26
1.20 3D Reliefs 27
1.20.1 Bas-relief, Sunken and Raised Relief 27
1.20.2 Image-Based Displacement 29
1.21 Historical Conclusion 30
Chapter 2: Literature Review and Research Objectives 32
2.1 Introduction to Photogrammetry 32
2.2 Overview 33
2.3 Medical 33
2.4 Archaeology 36
2.5 Museums 38
2.6 Cultural Heritage 40
2.7 Aerial Surveillance 44
2.8 Archiving and Storage of Data 45
2.9 Heritage Lost and Gained 46
2.9.1 The Crosby Garrett Helmet 46
2.9.2 Tlingit Community of southeast Alaska, USA 50
2.10 Research Objectives - Development of Simpler
Data Capture & Processing 51
2.11 Technology for Computer-literate Operatives 52
2.12 A Cost Effective, Cheaper and Safer System 53
2.13 Systems Utilisation 54
2.13.1 Local Community projects 54
2.13.2 Educational institutions 55
2.13.3 Museum and Gallery Staff 57
VII
2.13.4 Non-invasive Replication of Unique Objects 59
2.14 Product Promotion for Business 59
2.15 Spatial/Tactile Experience by Blind and Visually Impaired 61
2.16 Conclusions 64
2.16.1 Literature Summary and Gaps in Knowledge 64
Chapter 3: Tools of the Trade – Hardware and Software 66
3.1 Photographic Hardware 66
3.2 The Camera 66
3.3 The Lens 67
3.3.1 Close-up Lens 67
3.3.2 Neutral Density Lens 69
3.4 Additional Camera Equipment 70
3.4.1 Compact Camera Support Frame 71
3.4.2 Turntable and other Props 72
3.5 Compact Camera Test – Canon IXUS 100IS® 74
3.6 Lighting 75
3.6.1 Lighting and the Kelvin Scale 76
3.6.2 Basic Lighting Equipment 78
3.7 White Balance and Grey Scale 79
3.7.1 Accuracy of the Colour requirement 80
3.7.2 Consistency in Colour printing 81
3.7.3 Uniformity of AM printers and inks 82
3.7.4 Auto White Balance camera mode 84
3.8 Light Tents 87
3.8.1 Light Tent Construction 87
3.8.2 “Studio” Lighting Conditions – Spain 89
3.9 Open Room Studio 90
3.10 Alternative “Open Studios” 92
3.11 Software 95
3.11.1 AutoDesk - 123 Catch® 95
3.11.2 Agisoft – PhotoScan Pro4® 96
3.11.3 Netfabb GmbH – Studio Pro4® 97
VIII
3.11.4 DeskArts 3Data Expert® 98
3.11.5 Dassault Systèmes - SolidWorks® 99
3.12 Software Summary 100
Chapter 4: Methodology for 3D Reconstruction 101
4.1 Method 1 101
4.1.1 Open Room Studio – Setting the Scene 101
4.1.2 Data Capture – 123D Catch® 103
4.1.3 Computer Data Primary Processing 106
4.2 Case Studies 107
4.2.1 Clay Head 107
4.2.2 Unglazed Ceramic Vase 111
4.2.3 China Figurine Serenity 113
4.3 Data Chart and Image library 116
4.4 Creation of 3D Video 117
4.5 Summary 120
4.6 Method 2 120
4.6.1 “Light Tent” technique 120
4.6.2 Standard Data Capture – using PhotoScan Pro4® 122
4.7 Depth of field 123
4.8 Lens Diffraction 126
4.8.1 Histograms 130
4.9 Software control – semi automatic 132
4.10 Pre-Process Masking 134
4.10.1 Alternative uses for Pre-Process Masking 136
4.10.2 Digital Photographs, Point Cloud and 142
Polygon Images
4.11 High and Low Resolution Images 147
4.11.2 Print Problems Associated with 149
High Resolution Data
4.12 Bench Marking the Model and Adapting to the Limitations 152
of AM Technology
4.12.1 AM 3D Printing Machine Envelope Build 158
and Resolution Detail
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4.13 AM Printer Software 164
4.13.1 AM Printer Drivers 170
4.14 Digital Photographic Information held with the Image 171
4.14.1 Focusing onto the Target 172
4.15 Data Chart and Image Library – with PhotoScan Pro4® 176
4.16 Method 3 - Adapting to Working Environments 177
4.16.1 Using a Backcloth on its Own 177
4.16.2 Hanging on the Wall 181
4.17 Coded and Non-Coded targets 182
4.18 Summary Methodology 2 & 3 185
Chapter 5: Secondary Processing 187
5.1 Using netfabbPro5® 187
5.2 Reorientation 190
5.3 Measuring the Digital Image 193
5.4 Scaling and Resizing 196
5.4.1 Scaling using PhotoScan Pro4® 197
5.4.2 Scaling using 123D Catch® 197
5.4.3 Scaling using netfabbPro5® 198
5.5 Slicing or Free Cutting 202
5.6 Hollowing 204
5.6.1 Shell creation 204
5.6.2 Volume of Material used dictated by Shell 206
Thickness or Artifact attributes
5.6.3 Observations on Material Utilisation as used 211
in the Replication of the Artifacts
5.7 Boolean Operation 212
5.8 Other useful features 213
5.9 Summary 216
Chapter 6: Repair, reconstruction and construction 218
6.1 Returned Noisy data Distorted and Incomplete Data 218
6.1.1 Returned Noisy data 218
6.1.2 Incomplete data. 219
6.1.3 Unglazed Ceramic Vase - lesson in sewing 221
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