ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity

257 Pages·2017·3.36 MB·English

by  Khodadad Rezakhani

EDINBURGH STUDIES R O
e Rienting
IN ANCIENT PERSIA
Series Editor: Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones HC S
the aSanianS
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‘Rolf Strootman tells the fascinating story of the Hellenistic Near
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East as seen through the eyes of those in power. Theoretically L
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informed and brilliantly written, this is a masterly biography of a T
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political institution.’ S
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Michael Sommer, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg S A
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The first complete study of royal courts in the CD
Hellenistic Near East E E
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Rolf Strootman brings together various aspects of court culture in PT
the Macedonian empires of the post-Achaemenid Near East. During IRE
the Hellenistic Period (c. 330 to 30 bce), Alexander the Great and his ES

successors reshaped their Persian and Greco-Macedonian legacies to SI
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create a new kind of rulership that was neither ‘western’ nor ‘eastern’

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and would profoundly influence the development of court culture East Iran in Late Antiquity
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and monarchy in both the Roman West and Iranian East.
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Drawing on the socio-political models of Norbert Elias and Charles
Tilly, this book shows how the Macedonian dynastic courts were
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instrumental in the integration of local elites in the Hellenistic empires,
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and the (re)distribution of power, wealth and status. It analyses the l
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competition among courtiers for royal favour and the, not always
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successful, attempts of the Hellenistic rulers to use these struggles to t
their own advantage. R
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Rolf Strootman is Associate Professor of Ancient History at the
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University of Utrecht. m
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Cover image: Antiochos I of Kommagene shaking hands with Herakles (detail). First-century bce relief n
from Arsameia © Klaus-Peter Simon/Wikimedia Commons.
Cover design: Barrie Tullett
ISBN 978-0-7486-9126-5
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www.euppublishing.com R
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Rezakhani4.indd 1 11/06/2016 21:59
ReOrienting the Sasanians
East Iran in Late Antiquity
Khodadad Rezakhani
Edinburgh University Press is one of the leading university
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© Khodadad Rezakhani, 2017
Edinburgh University Press Ltd
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the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003
(SI No. 2498).
Contents
List of Illustrations iv
Acknowledgements vii
Series Editor’s Preface ix
Maps xi
Preface 1
Introduction 7
1 The Sasanians and the Sistanis 27
2 The Kushans and the Sasanians 46
3 The Kushano-Sasanians in East Iran 72
4 The Iranian Huns and the Kidarites 87
5 The Alkhans in the Southern Hindu Kush 104
6 The Hephthalite ‘Empire’ and its Successors 125
7 Sogdiana in the Kidarite and Hephthalite Periods 147
8 The Ne¯zak and Turk Periods 157
9 Tokharistan and Sogdiana in the Late Sasanian Period 176
10 General Conclusions and Postscript 185
11 Epilogue and Excursus on the Shahnameh 194
Bibliography 199
Index 235
List of Illustrations
Fig. 1.1 Coin of Indo-Parthian Sanabares (© CNG 252,
Lot 213). 28
Fig. 1.2 Ardashir’s copper Marw issue, SNS I type IIIa/3a
(© CNG 332 Lot 155). 30
Fig. 1.3 Silver tetradrachm of Maues (© CNG 369, Lot 299). 33
Fig. 1.4 Silver tetradrachms of Vonones with (?)Spalahores
(© CNG 69 Lot 834). 34
Fig. 1.5 Silver drachm of Gondophares (© CNG 66, Lot 824). 36
Fig. 1.6 Silver drachm of Sanabares with Pahlavi legend on the
obverse (© CNG 176, Lot 106). 38
Fig. 1.7 Copper issue of Farn-Sasan (Courtesy of the American
Numismatic Society). 42
Fig. 1.8 Reverse of the coin of Vahshir, king of Persis, showing
a man looking right paying respect to a fire altar
(© Photo courtesy of British Museum, 1894, 0506.
2386). 42
Fig. 1.9 Coin of Ardashir as the Sasanian King of Kings,
showing on the reverse a fire altar set on a pedestal
(© CNG 997, Lot 337). 43
Fig. 2.1 Early Kushan ‘Heraios’ with the word KOIIANOY
(sic, ‘of Kushan’) on the reverse. The ‘control mark’
ΣANAB is located between the horse’s legs (© CNG
Triton XVIII, Lot: 265). 55
Fig. 2.2 Coin of Soter Megas (© CNG 324, Lot 237). 58
Fig. 2.3 Coin of Vima Takto, with the Kharoshti legend
Maharajaasa Rajadirajasa Devaputrasa Vima Takha
on the reverse (CoinIndia MAC 2896var). 59
Fig. 2.4 Copper tetradrachm of Vima Kadphises, minted in
Kapis´a, showing the canonical standing king on the
obverse and the god Oe¯šo/S´iva and the bull Nandi on
the reverse (CNG 361, Lot 768). 60
iv
List of Illustrations v
Fig. 2.5 Gold issue of Vima II Kadphises, showing the Kushan
tamgha behind the king’s head on the obverse and
the figure of Oe¯šo/S´iva on the reverse, flanked by
the tamgha and the Buddhist Tiratana (© CNG 152,
Lot 159). 61
Fig. 2.6 Gold reliquary casket of Kanishka, British Museum,
with figures of the Buddha and of deities (© CC BY-SA
3.0; public domain; no alterations). 63
Fig. 2.7 Gold issue of Kanishka, showing the goddess Nana on
the reverse (© CNG 362 Lot 247). 64
Fig. 2.8 Silver tetradrachm of Kanishka, with the Buddha on
the reverse (© CNG 314 Lot 227). 65
Fig. 2.9 Copper tetradrachm of Huvishka with the god Oado
(Wind) (© CNG 323 Lot 188). 67
Fig. 2.10 Gold coin of Kanishka II, in the style of Vasudeva,
with Oe¯šo on the reverse (© CNG 347 Lot 311). 69
Fig. 2.11 Gold issue of Vasudeva II; note the changing facial
features (© CNG 334 Lot 211). 70
Fig. 3.1 Sasanian relief at Rag-¯ı Bibi in northern Afghanistan
(© François Ory). 75
Fig. 3.2 Copper drachm of Ardashir 1, Kushanshah, minted in
Marw (© CNG 319, Lot 177). 76
Fig. 3.3 Gold dinar of Pe¯ro¯z 1, with ‘the Exalted God’ on the
reverse (© CNG Triton XIX Lot 2148). 81
Fig. 3.4 Gold scyphate dinar of Hormizd 1, Kushan King of
Kings (© CNG Triton XVIII, Lot 867). 82
Fig. 4.1 Victory relief of Shapur II over Julian the Apostate
(© Author). 92
Fig. 4.2 Silver drachm in the name of Kidara, king of the
Kushans (© das Antlitz des Fremden). 96
Fig. 4.3 Gold dinar of Kidara-Kushan in Brahmi script (© das
Antlitz des Fremden). 98
Fig. 5.1 Silver drachm, unknown Alkhan authority, showing
the typical Alkhan bust type on the obverse (© das
Antlitz des Fremden). 107
Fig. 5.2 Silver drachm of Khingila, with Bactrian inscription
‘Khingila, of the Alkhan’ (© das Antlitz des
Fremden). 111
Fig. 5.3 Billon drachm issue of the Alkhan–Ne¯zak ‘Crossover’
series (© das Antlitz des Fremden). 113
Fig. 5.4 Silver drachm of Mihirakula with a Brahmi inscription
(© das Antlitz des Fremden). 116
vi ReOrienting the Sasanians
Fig. 5.5 Silver drachms of Zabokho, naming him as ‘the King
of the East’ (© das Antlitz des Fremden). 119
Fig. 6.1 Silver drachm, Hephthalite, imitating the coins of
Sasanian Pe¯ro¯z (© das Antlitz des Fremden). 130
Fig. 6.2 Hephthalite tamgha (© das Antlitz des Fremden). 139
Fig. 7.1 Silver obol of anonymous local authority in
Samarkand, possibly under Kidarite rule (© CNG
360, Lot 233). 152
Fig. 8.1 Silver drachm, early (late fifth-/early sixth-century)
Ne¯zak, possibly from ‘Ghazni’(?), with the Pahlavi
inscription Ne¯zak Shah (© das Antlitz des Fremden). 161
Fig. 8.2 Billon drachm issue of the Alkhan–Ne¯zak ‘Crossover’
series with a pseudo-Pahlavi inscription (© das Antlitz
des Fremden). 162
Fig. 8.3 Billon drachms of the Turk Shahis of Zawulistan,
with the Bactrian inscription ‘Sero’ (© das Antlitz des
Fremden). 165
Fig. 8.4 Buddhist stupas from Kefiriat Tepe in the Kabul Valley
(© 2011 Alka Patel). 168
Fig. 8.5 Silver drachms of Tegin, king of Khurasan, perhaps
from Kabul? (© das Antlitz des Fremden). 168
Fig. 8.6 Silver drachm of Phrom Kesar, declaring his victory
over the Arabs in a Bactrian inscription (© das Antlitz
des Fremden). 172
Fig. 8.7 Copper drachms of Pangul with Pahlavi and Bactrian
inscriptions, from the Rakhvat/Al-Rukkhaj mint in
Sistan (© das Antlitz des Fremden). 173
Fig. 9.1 Countermarked silver drachm of Sasanian Hormizd
IV, year 11 (ad 588–9), minted in BHL (Balkh)
(© das Antlitz des Fremden). 177
Fig. 9.2 Relief showing a fantastic creature; mural from
Panjikent at the State Hermitage Museum
(© Author). 180
Fig. 11.1 Rostam on his horse; mural from Panjikent at
the State Hermitage Museum (© Author). 196
Fig. 11.2 Head of Rostam in the mural from Panjikent at
the State Hermitage Museum (© Author). 196
Fig. 11.3 Silver drachms of Lakhana Udayaditya from
Gandhara (© das Antlitz des Fremden). 196
Acknowledgements
The process of writing a book perhaps owes as much to one’s own
intellectual interests as it does to the influence and help of others,
and this book is no exception to that rule. Consequently, aside from
acknowledging the direct help of colleagues and friends, I ought to
mention the influence of my mentors in the writing of this mon-
ograph. I owe my intellectual development to many, but Chester
Dunning, Martin Schwartz, Michael Morony, Patrick Geary, and
Claudia Rapp stand above others in helping me find direction in
my scholarly pursuit. Among these, Michael Morony has borne the
responsibility of my PhD education and mentored me ever since.
Although this book is not the result of my doctoral work, I still
felt his critical eye watching over me while working on it. Touraj
Daryaee, my real-life best friend and longest-running mentor, has
patiently acted as a sounding board and guiding light throughout
much of my academic life so far. I thank them both profusely.
Michael Alram and Nikolaus Schindel introduced me to numis-
matics, a field used extensively in this book. They also read the final
manuscript of the work and provided critical comments and many
corrections, for which I am grateful. All remaining mistakes remain
my responsibility alone. Nicholas Sims-Williams, Frantz Grenet, and
Judith Lerner, true scholars, responded to my enquiries, answered my
questions, and provided me with hard-to-reach material, for which
I am in their debt. Judith Lerner was also the source of friendly and
enthusiastic support and gave encouragement in times when it was
most needed. Klaus Vondrovec kindly gave answers to my enquir-
ies and provided me with articles and pictures. Fatema ‘Gougouli’
Soudavar has always been a warm and wonderful supporter and
friend, and the Soudavar Foundation have also made the research
for this book possible through their generous support. I am most
grateful for their kindness. I also wish to thank Dr François Ory,
Dr Alka Patel and Dr Daniel Schmutz (of das Anlitz des Fremden
vii
viii ReOrienting the Sasanians
project) for their kindness in providing me with the photographs I
needed, as well as the Classical Numismatic Group for their gener-
osity and speed in granting me the rights to their wonderful collec-
tion of coins. Many other friends and colleagues, including Giusto
Traina, Klaus Geus, Omar Coloru, Michael Shenkar, Frantz Grenet,
Robert Hoyland, Kamyar Abdi, Shervin Farridnejad, Adam Benkato,
Arash Zeini, Pavel Lurye, Pierfrancesco Callieri, Wouter Henkelman,
Matthias Pfisterer, Gershon Lowenthal, Robert Schaaf, and James
Howard-Johnston, have taken an interest in all or parts of this work
and have contributed to its development through fruitful discussions
and thought-provoking questions. My students and friends at various
classes, particularly in Berlin, always proved to be sources of great
inspiration and pushed me to clarify my arguments and sharpen my
points. I am particularly grateful to the inquisitive nature of Arash
Azizi, and Yusef Sa’adat and the great insights of Soheil Delshad.
My friends Philip Grant, David Bennett, and Shervin Farridnejad
also read all or parts of the manuscript and provided me with many
useful comments and corrections. Dr David Bennet also took on the
additional pain/pleasure of making the index for the book. Rasmus
Elling, Reza Zia Ebrahimi, and David Bennett (the BBMG), great
scholars in their own right, are my closest friends and their help has
always gone above and beyond just scholarship. My mother, Lara
Ghiassi, is my original inspiration and language guru and the one
who first inspired me to pursue scholarship. My father, Javanshir
Bonyab, inspired me with intellectual curiosity and always supported
my academic pursuit. Neither of them ever took me too seriously, for
which I am most thankful. Last but not least, my much better half,
Sara Mashayekh, has been my closest friend and toughest intellec-
tual sparring partner, who both encouraged me during the process of
the writing of this book and challenged me at every stage. This book
would not have been possible without her.
Khodadad Rezakhani
Berlin, August 2016
Series Editor’s Preface
Edinburgh Studies in Ancient Persia focuses on the world of ancient
Persia (pre-Islamic Iran) and its reception. Academic interest with
and fascination in ancient Persia have burgeoned in recent decades
and research on Persian history and culture is now routinely filtered
into studies of the Greek and Roman worlds; biblical scholarship too
is now more keenly aware of Persian-period history than ever before;
while, most importantly, the study of the history, cultures, languages,
and societies of ancient Iran is now a well-established discipline in
its own right.
Persia was, after all, at the centre of ancient world civilisations.
This series explores that centrality throughout several successive
‘Persian empires’: the Achaemenid dynasty (founded c. 550 bce) saw
Persia rise to its highest level of political and cultural influence, as
the Great Kings of Iran fought for, and maintained, an empire which
stretched from India to Libya and from Macedonia to Ethiopia. The
art and architecture of the period both reflect the diversity of the
empire and proclaim a single centrally constructed theme: a harmo-
nious world-order brought about by a benevolent and beneficent
king. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great, the Persian
Empire fragmented but maintained some of its infrastructures and
ideologies in the new kingdoms established by Alexander’s succes-
sors, in particular the Seleucid dynasts who occupied the territo-
ries of western Iran, Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Asia Minor.
But even as Greek influence extended into the former territories of
the Achaemenid realm, at the heart of Iran a family of nobles, the
Parthian dynasty, rose to threaten the growing imperial power of
Rome. Finally, the mighty Sasanian dynasty ruled Iran and much
of the Middle East from the second century ce onwards, proving
to be a powerful foe to Late Imperial Rome and Byzantium. The
rise of Islam, a new religion in Arabia, brought a sudden end to the
Sasanian dynasty in the mid-600s ce.
ix