Table Of Content

Renewable Energy Technologies and Water Infrastructure Advancing Renewable Energy Technologies Committee Edited by S. Rao Chitikela, Ph.D., P.E., P.Eng. Venkata Gullapalli, Ph.D. William F. Ritter, Ph.D., P.E., D.WRE Renewable Energy Technologies and Water Infrastructure Prepared by Advancing Renewable Energy Technologies Committee Edited by S. Rao Chitikela, Ph.D., P.E., P.Eng. Venkata Gullapalli, Ph.D. William F. Ritter, Ph.D., P.E., D.WRE Published by the American Society of Civil Engineers Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Advancing Renewable Energy Technologies Committee, author. | Chitikela, S. Rao, editor. | Gullapalli, Venkata, editor. | Ritter, William F., editor. Title: Renewable energy technologies and water infrastructure Description: First edition. | Reston : American Society of Civil Engineers, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “Renewable Energy Technologies and the Water Infrastructure provides an in-depth look at policy, regulation, and the development and application of renewable energies into existing water infrastructure”-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2021022251 | ISBN 9780784415856 (paperback) | ISBN 9780784483664 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Waterworks--Technological innovations--United States. | Waterworks-- Energy conservation--United States. | Waterworks--Environmental aspects--United States. | Water--Purification--Equipment and supplies--Technological innovations--United States. | Renewable energy sources. Classification: LCC TD485 .E58 2021 | DDC 628.10973--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021022251 Published by American Society of Civil Engineers 1801 Alexander Bell Drive Reston, Virginia 20191-4382 www.asce.org/bookstore|ascelibrary.org Any statements expressed in these materials are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily represent the views of ASCE, which takes no responsibility for any statement made herein. No reference made in this publication to any specific method, product, process, or service constitutes or implies an endorsement, recommendation, or warranty thereof by ASCE. The materials are for general information only and do not represent a standard of ASCE, nor are they intended as a reference in purchase specifications, contracts, regulations, statutes, or any other legal document. 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ISBN 978-0-7844-1585-6 (print) ISBN 978-0-7844-8366-4 (PDF) Manufactured in the United States of America. 27 26 25 24 23 22 1 2 3 4 5 Contents Preface ..........................................................................................................................................ix Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................xiii List of Authors and Reviewers ...........................................................................................xv Chapter 1 U S Renewable Energy Policy—Analysis and Recommendations ....................................................................1 Alexander Krokus (Deceased) Introduction ........................................................................................................................1 National Energy Act of 1978 (H.R. 8444 1977-78) ........................................2 Energy Policy Act of 2005 ....................................................................................2 Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 ........................................3 Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 ...............................................3 Clean Power Plan of 2015 .....................................................................................3 Energy Efficiency Resources Standards ..........................................................4 Renewable Energy Projects ................................................................................5 Federal Investment Tax Credit ...........................................................................5 Renewable Production Tax Credit ....................................................................5 Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System ...............................................6 R enewable Energy Resources—Review/Recommendations ............................6 Hydropower .............................................................................................................6 Biofuels .......................................................................................................................7 Solar Photovoltaic ..................................................................................................8 Wind Energy .............................................................................................................8 Future of United States Renewable Energy Policy .....................................9 Summary ............................................................................................................................11 References ........................................................................................................................12 Chapter 2 R enewables and Regulatory Requirements of the United States ..............................................................................17 S. Rao Chitikela Introduction ......................................................................................................................17 US-Code, Law, and Act—Renewable Energy .......................................................19 Renewable Energy Standards ....................................................................................20 Renewable Portfolio Standards—The State of Connecticut, Example .......25 Renewable Portfolio Standards Eligibility—The State of California, Example ..................................................................................................................27 iii iv CoNTENTS Local Government on Renewable Energy Projects—State of Virginia, Example ..................................................................................................................28 Solar and Wind Energy Rule—Bureau of Land Management .......................31 RE Programs—Bureau of ocean Energy Management ....................................33 Renewables—Federal Energy Regulatory Commission ..................................34 Summary ...........................................................................................................................35 Disclaimer .........................................................................................................................35 References ........................................................................................................................36 Chapter 3 Biofuels: Ethanol and Biodiesel .............................................39 William F. Ritter Ethanol ...............................................................................................................................39 Introduction ..........................................................................................................39 Legislation ..............................................................................................................40 Classes of Ethanol ................................................................................................41 Processing of Corn Ethanol ..............................................................................42 Cellulosic Ethanol Processing ..........................................................................43 US Ethanol Production ......................................................................................44 Greenhouse Gases ..............................................................................................46 Water Quality Impacts .......................................................................................48 Pros and Cons of Ethanol ..................................................................................52 Biodiesel ............................................................................................................................53 Introduction ..........................................................................................................53 Biodiesel Processing ...........................................................................................54 Classes of Biodiesel Blends ..............................................................................55 US Biodiesel Production ...................................................................................55 Summary ...........................................................................................................................57 References ........................................................................................................................57 Chapter 4 Micro-Hydropower: Concept, System Design, and Innovations .......................................................................61 Tamim Younos, Juneseok Lee Introduction .....................................................................................................................61 Micro-Hydropower Generation: Concept .............................................................62 Micro-Hydropower System Design .........................................................................64 Case Study Site .....................................................................................................64 Micro-Hydropower System Design Components ...................................65 Hydraulic Component Design ........................................................................65 Mechanical Component Design ....................................................................68 Electrical Component Design .........................................................................71 Case Study Project Cost ....................................................................................75 Cost–Benefit Analysis .........................................................................................75 Regulatory Requirements—Case Study Site .............................................76 Micro-Hydropower: Viable Technology in Developing Countries ...............76 CoNTENTS v Small-Stream Micro-Hydropower: Challenges and Limitations ....................78 Emerging Micro- and Small-Hydropower Technologies .................................79 Summary ...........................................................................................................................80 Appendix A. Bill of Materials (Equipment, 2013 Prices) ....................................81 Appendix B. Bill of Materials (Supplies/Materials, 2013 Prices) ......................88 Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................90 Disclaimer .........................................................................................................................90 References ........................................................................................................................90 Chapter 5 B iogas-to-Energy—The Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems .....................................................................................93 S. Rao Chitikela, William F. Ritter Introduction .....................................................................................................................93 Biogas Generation Systems—Theory and Practice ...........................................94 Anaerobic Digestion of Livestock and Poultry Manure ...................................96 S ludges/Biosolids and Biogas-to-Energy—US Regulations .........................101 B iogas-to-Electric Generation and Combined Heat and Power .................102 Economics of Livestock and Poultry Manure Anaerobic Digestion ...........105 Biogas in the Circular Economy ..............................................................................107 Summary .........................................................................................................................110 References .......................................................................................................................111 Chapter 6 Fuel Cells for Renewable Wastewater Infrastructure .........113 Bhuvan Vemuri, Govinda Chilkoor, Jawahar Kalimuthu, Ammi Amarnath, James E. Kilduff, Venkataramana Gadhamshetty Introduction ...................................................................................................................113 Hydrogen ........................................................................................................................116 Biological Processes for Hydrogen Production ......................................116 Dark Fermentation .............................................................................................117 Microbial Electrolysis Cells .............................................................................118 Photofermentation ...........................................................................................119 Biophotolysis .......................................................................................................120 Fuel Cells .........................................................................................................................121 Hydrogen Fuel Cells ..........................................................................................124 Alkaline Fuel Cell ................................................................................................125 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell ...............................................................................126 Hydrogen and Hydrocarbon Fuel Cells .....................................................127 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells .........................................................................127 Solid oxide Fuel Cells .......................................................................................129 Microbial Fuel Cell .............................................................................................130 Summary .........................................................................................................................131 Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................131 References ......................................................................................................................131 vi CoNTENTS Chapter 7 Sustainable Desalination Using Renewable Energy Sources ......................................................................135 Veera Gnaneswar Gude Introduction ...................................................................................................................135 Desalination Technologies—Principles of operation ....................................136 Multistage Flash Desalination .......................................................................136 Multieffect Distillation .....................................................................................136 Vapor Compression ..........................................................................................137 Energy Efficiency of Thermal Desalination ..............................................137 Reverse osmosis ................................................................................................137 Renewable Energy Integration with Desalination Processes .......................138 Selection Process of the Desalination Process ..................................................142 Sustainability of Desalination Technologies ......................................................144 Environmental Impacts of Desalination Processes ...............................144 Brine Disposal .....................................................................................................144 Economic Considerations of Renewable Energy-Driven Desalination Processes ......................................................................146 Regulatory Requirements ..............................................................................147 Social Aspects of Desalination Processes .................................................147 Summary .........................................................................................................................147 References ......................................................................................................................148 Chapter 8 Geothermal Energy ...............................................................151 Audrey Angelos, Guangdong Zhu General Description ....................................................................................................151 Geothermal Resources ...............................................................................................152 Geothermal Resource Applications .......................................................................152 Geothermal Power Generation ...............................................................................154 Power Plant Types ........................................................................................................154 Dry Steam .............................................................................................................154 Flash ...................................................................................................................155 organic Rankine Cycle/Binary .......................................................................156 Current Status ................................................................................................................156 Worldwide Capacity .........................................................................................156 Technological Distribution .............................................................................157 Geothermal Direct Use ...............................................................................................157 Direct Heating Applications .....................................................................................158 Mineral Recovery ..........................................................................................................158 Energy Storage ..............................................................................................................159 Future Direction ...........................................................................................................159 Enhanced Geothermal Systems ...................................................................159 Hybridization opportunities with Concentrating Solar Power ........160 Perspective .....................................................................................................................160 References ......................................................................................................................161 CoNTENTS vii Chapter 9 Wind Energy—Increasing Resilience in Water Infrastructure .........................................................................163 Pamela A. Menges Introduction ...................................................................................................................163 Wind Turbine Technologies ......................................................................................165 Wind Technology Powering Mechanical Systems............................................167 Efficiency and the Betz Limit....................................................................................170 Assessing Power from Wind .....................................................................................171 Turbine Technology, Applications, and Siting ...................................................172 Built Environment Wind Turbine ............................................................................173 Quantifying Turbulence and Turbulence Intensity ..........................................174 Energy and Water .........................................................................................................175 Role of Wind Energy in Water Infrastructure Security ....................................178 Emerging Technologies .............................................................................................179 Summary .........................................................................................................................181 References ......................................................................................................................181 Chapter 10 Solar Energy and Water/Wastewater Infrastructure ........183 Venkata Gullapalli Introduction ...................................................................................................................183 Solar Radiation ..............................................................................................................183 Solar Photovoltaics ......................................................................................................184 Solar Thermal .................................................................................................................185 S olar Photovoltaics and Concentrating Solar Power Comparison .............186 Solar in Water Industry ...............................................................................................187 Desalination ...................................................................................................................189 Thermal Technologies .....................................................................................189 Membrane Technologies ................................................................................190 Solar in Desalination ...................................................................................................190 Solar Water Disinfection ............................................................................................191 Wastewater Processing ..............................................................................................193 Solar in Wastewater Processing ..............................................................................194 Summary .........................................................................................................................195 References ......................................................................................................................196 Chapter 11 Renewable Energy Technologies for Water Quality Monitoring ...........................................................................199 Varun K. Kasaraneni Introduction ...................................................................................................................199 Solar-Powered Monitoring Networks ...................................................................201 Stormwater Sampling and Monitoring......................................................201 Discharge and Nonpoint Source Monitoring ..........................................202 Water Quality Monitoring with Data Buoys .............................................205 Microbial Fuel Cells for Water Quality Monitoring ...........................................206 viii CoNTENTS Summary .........................................................................................................................211 References ......................................................................................................................211 Chapter 12 I ntegrating Renewable Energy in Water Infrastructure: Global Trends and Future Outlook ........................................213 Juneseok Lee, Tamim Younos Introduction ...................................................................................................................213 Background ....................................................................................................................214 Water and Energy Nexus.................................................................................214 Water and Energy Conservation ..................................................................215 Applications of Renewable Energy in the Water Industry ............................215 Solar Energy.........................................................................................................215 Wind Energy ........................................................................................................217 outlook ............................................................................................................................218 Summary .........................................................................................................................220 References ......................................................................................................................221 Appendix .....................................................................................................225 List of Acronyms and Abbreviations .....................................................................225 Index ............................................................................................................231 Preface Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) Task Committee of the Environmental and Water Resources Institute (EWRI) was formed in 2016 with the objectives toward accomplishing on water infrastructure and the application of sustainability and resilience requirements. Thus, this task committee has been working on advancement on knowledge of field-proven RETs for the operation of water infrastructure meeting the triple bottom line. The task committee has successfully accomplished the selection and writing on various renewable energy (RE) technologies and proven application to water infrastructure. Following the task committee’s success, a new full standing committee, called the Advancing Renewable Energy Technologies Committee (ARETC) of EWRI, has now been formed. The planning and inclusion of 12 chapters of this book encompass the applicable and critical review details on: RE policy and regulatory requirements; micro-hydro power; biofuels; biogas-to-energy; fuel cells for clean water; sustainable desalination; geothermal energy; solar and wind energy toward a resilient water infrastructure; the application of renewables for the monitoring of water quality; and renewable energy applications to water infrastructure. We, ARETC, pay our sincere and highest respects to Mr. Alexander Krokus—who has been an inspiration, provided constant encouragement, and watched of high expectations for the ARETC—on the sad demise, and we pray for his great soul rest in peace. The book chapters put forward knowledge on the application(s) of renewables toward effectively operating water infrastructure into the future. The authors converged on the following aspects on invaluable and sound policy, regulation, science, and engineering with respect to the development and application of renewables: • To gear up on renewables, subsidies on fossil-fuel energy applications must be significantly reduced and an immediate boost to RE funds should be provided; and this approach would help safeguard humankind from ongoing uncertain weather patterns and havoc. The federal agency efforts, such as by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), and Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), based on the effective RE legislative actions, are appreciative (to date) in terms of the production and consumption of RE at more than 9.5 quintillion J (9.0 quadrillion Btu) and the resultant significant reduction of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Moreover, the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA 2007) has been instrumental in the production of renewable fuels (Chapters 1 and 2). ix