Table Of Content

I Renewable Energy Renewable Energy Edited by T J Hammons In-Tech intechweb.org Published by In-Teh In-Teh Olajnica 19/2, 32000 Vukovar, Croatia Abstracting and non-profit use of the material is permitted with credit to the source. Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles. Publisher assumes no responsibility liability for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained inside. After this work has been published by the In-Teh, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are an author or editor, and the make other personal use of the work. © 2009 In-teh www.intechweb.org Additional copies can be obtained from: [email protected] First published December 2009 Printed in India Technical Editor: Zeljko Debeljuh Renewable Energy, Edited by T J Hammons p. cm. ISBN 978-953-7619-52-7 V Preface Our goal in preparing this book was to discuss and publish new discoveries and improvements, innovative ideas and concepts, as well as novel and further applications and business models which are related to the field of Renewable Energy. Renewable Energy is energy generated from natural resources—such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat—which are naturally replenished. In 2008, about 18% of global final energy consumption came from renewables, with 13% coming from traditional biomass, such as wood burning. Hydroelectricity was the next largest renewable source, providing 3% (15% of global electricity generation), followed by solar hot water/heating, which contributed 1.3%. Modern technologies, such as geothermal energy, wind power, solar power, and ocean energy together provided some 0.8% of final energy consumption. Alternative energy includes all sources and technologies that minimize environmental impacts relative to conventional hydrocarbon resources and economic issues related to fossil fuel resources. Fuel cells and natural gas might be alternatives to coal or nuclear power. Throughout the book, the fundamentals of the technologies related to integration of such alternative and renewable energy sources are reviewed and described with authority, skill, and from critical engineering aspects for the end user of energy. Climate change concerns coupled with oil prices with its uncertainty and increasing government support is driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization. Investment capital flowing into renewable energy climbed from $80 billion (US) in 2005 to $100 billion in 2006. The book provides the forum for dissemination and exchange of up-to-date scientific information on theoretical, generic and applied areas of knowledge. The topics deal with new devices and circuits for energy systems, photovoltaic and solar thermal, wind energy systems, tidal and wave energy, fuel cell systems, bio energy and geo- energy, sustainable energy resources and systems, energy storage systems, energy market management and economics, off-grid isolated energy systems, energy in transportation systems, energy resources for portable electronics, intelligent energy power transmission, distribution and inter-connectors, energy efficient utilization, environmental issues, energy harvesting, nanotechnology in energy, policy issues on renewable energy, building design, power electronics in energy conversion, new materials for energy resources, and RF and magnetic field energy devices. Open Access is a new direction in academic publishing where all chapters are available for full free access online. The book is published as open access fully searchable by anyone anywhere. VI We believe that immediate, worldwide, barrier-free, open access to the full text of research articles is in the best interests of the scientific community. Free online availability substantially increases an article’s impact. The mean number of citations to offline articles has been shown to be 2.5~3.0 % smaller. The book is also available in printed edition (hardcopy} and has been distributed to major university and learned societies libraries, etc. free worldwide. The timely initiatives taken by the authors in this book to cover closely renewable energy is applauded. I am confident that this work will contribute to our better understanding of how to integrate renewable energy sources into our electricity grids for commercial, domestic and industrial applications. I strongly recommend this work to a wide audience, including environments, engineering educators, students, industrialists, consultants, and those concerned in reducing greenhouse emissions that is affecting our planet. December 2009 T J Hammons University of Glasgow, UK VII Contents Preface V 1. A Model for Greener Power Generation for North-east Sri Lanka based on Stand-alone Renewable Energy Systems 001 Reggie Davidrajuh 2. Automatic Sun-Tracker System for Photo-Voltaic Plants 017 Joao M. G. Figueiredo 3. Development of Space-Based Solar Power 027 Lyle M. Jenkins 4. Increasing the energy yield of generation from new and renewable energy resources 037 Samuel C. E. Jupe, Andrea Michiorri and Philip C. Taylor 5. Embedded Energy Storage Systems in the Power Grid for Renewable Energy Sources Integration 063 Sérgio Faias, Jorge Sousa and Rui Castro 6. Single-Phase Grid Connected Converters for Photovoltaic Plants 089 Emilio Lorenzani, Giovanni Franceschini, Alberto Bellini and Carla Tassoni 7. Grid Integration of Renewable Energy Systems 109 Athula Rajapakse, Dharshana Muthumuni and Nuwan Perera 8. Hardware in the loop simulation of renewable distributed generation systems 133 Marco Mauri 9. Harmonics Reduction Techniques in Renewable Energy Interfacing Converters 153 Ali M. Eltamaly, Ph.D 10. Hybrid Control of DC-DC Power Converters 173 Ilse Cervantes, Francisco J. Perez-Pinal and Angelica Mendoza-Torres 11. Interaction of Renewable Energy Source and Power Supply Network 197 Branislav Dobrucký, Michal Pokorný and Mariana Beňová 12. Marine Tidal Current Electric Power Generation: State of Art and Current Status 211 Yun Seng. Lim and Siong Lee. Koh VIII 13. Modelling and Simulation of an Induction Drive with Application to a Small Wind Turbine Generator 227 Levente TAMAS and Zoltan SZEKELY 14. Photovoltaic/Wind Energy System with Hydrogen Storage 249 Mamadou Lamine Doumbia and Kodjo Agbossou 15. Multilevel Converters in Renewable Energy Systems 271 Alireza Nami and Firuz Zare 16. Isolated hybrid solar-wind-hydro renewable energy systems 297 Dorin Bică, Cristian Dragoş Dumitru, Adrian Gligor, Adrian-Vasile Duka 17. Planning of Distributed Energy Systems with Parallel Infrastructures: A Case study 317 Bjorn H. Bakken 18. Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems 333 Florin Iov and Frede Blaabjerg 19. Renewable Energy in Lebanon 365 Nazih Moubayed, Ali El-Ali and Rachid Outbib 20. RenH – A Stand-Alone Sustainable Renewable Energy System 375 2 João Martins, Carmen M. Rangel, António Joyce, João Sotomayor, Armando Pires, Rui Castro 21. Solar Power Source for autonomous sensors 401 José Pelegrí-Sebastiá, Rafael Lajara Vizcaíno & Jorge Alberola Lluch 22. The Temperature Dependant Efficiency of Photovoltaic Modules - a long term evaluation of experimental measurements 415 Jan Machacek, Zdenek Prochazka and Jiri Drapela 23. The use of Switched Reluctance Generator in Wind Energy Applications 447 Eleonora Darie, Costin Cepişcă and Emanuel Darie 24. Tidal Energy Technologies: Currents, Wave and Offshore Wind Power in the United Kingdom, Europe and North America 463 T. J. Hammons 25. Wind Energy Technology 505 R. Mesquita Brandão, J. Beleza Carvalho & F. P. Maciel Barbosa 26. Wind Generation Modelling for the Management of Electrical Transmission Systems 531 François Vallée 27. Variable speed pumped storage hydropower plants for integration of wind power in isolated power systems 553 Jon Are Suul A Model for Greener Power Generation for North-east Sri Lanka based on Stand-alone Renewable Energy Systems 1 A Model for Greener Power Generation for North-east Sri Lanka based 1 X on Stand-alone Renewable Energy Systems Reggie Davidrajuh A Model for Greener Power Generation for North-east Sri Lanka based on Stand-alone Renewable Energy Systems Reggie Davidrajuh University of Stavanger Norway 1. Introduction In Northern and Eastern Sri Lanka (NE-SL), electricity is not available in most of the places due to the civil war. There is practically no electricity production and distribution system available or planned. Since Sri Lanka, as a whole, is suffering from power-shortage, it will be not possible for her to supply electricity to NE-SL, by the time the civil war comes to an end. An alternative generation and distribution system should, therefore, be designed to supply electricity to NE-SL. The need for electric power may be analyzed by a fairly intensive and deep study, which invariably requires life cycle analysis of the society in terms of energy use and conservation, industrial and household development, population and industry distribution, export and import of electricity, etc. In contemporary NE-SL, however, the very basics in a societal infrastructure such as industry, highways and education system, are either non-existent or in primitive form. And due to the on-going war in this region, important data for electricity power sector decision-making (such as income and purchasing power of the population, planned transportation and highway infrastructure, environmentally sensitive areas, meteorological data, etc.) are either not available or inadequate. The objective of this chapter is to demonstrate that to achieve a sustainable electricity generation for NE-SL, in addition to utilizing the abundant intermittent resources NE-SL has, namely solar and wind, biomass production must be given utmost priority. The scope of this chapter is limited to design of a mixture of power plants in the cogeneration system, not involving the other aspects of electricity sector such as transmission and distribution. Limitation of this work: due to the ongoing civil war in the region, there is no recent data available about energy production and consumption in this region; the data used in this chapter is from 1994 to 1996. 2 Renewable Energy 2. Needs and Requirements for Sustainable Power Supply  In case of intermittent primary energy source is used, energy back-up shall be provided by the system The long-term life cycle scenarios for energy to the planet Earth points to massive utilization  Existing technology for energy conversion shall be utilized to a degree, which is the of solar power, or its derivatives as hydro-, wind- or biomass power (Weinberg, 1990). most feasible economically Power from tidal waves, geothermal and ocean thermal power is insignificant as far as NE-  The economy of scale shall be utilized optimally in terms of size and capacity of SL is concerned. Each type of energy has its own economy, life cycle and complications. units, modularization and standardization, distribution and centralization Direct solar power and wind power is complicated by its diluted form and its variation with time and location. However, some of these variations are predictable and may be used in optimal predictive control of power cogeneration systems (Asbjornsen, 1984). Example of 3. System Integration such cogeneration system is a combination of solar, wind and biomass power. The power Some thoughts are given below on integrating generators into the electric grid, by generating systems interconnected by the power grid is an existing technology. But considering the technology's social and environmental effects. incorporating intermittent power supplies (like solar, wind) to the grid requires careful planning. Nuclear power or hydropower systems acting as the base-load supplier of the utilities, try to even out any fluctuations or failures in the intermittent power supplies, if the 3.1 System Response to Customers’ Power Requirements intermittent power supplies are connected to the grid. With absence of fossil fuels, Changes in customers’ power requirements will automatically be taken care of by the hydropower or nuclear power, a sustainable cogeneration system for NE-SL has to use demand management system through control of the turbines in the power generation biomass as buffer in incorporating intermittent power supplies. The other option is to systems. The optimal strategy will be to let the solar power generation run at its maximum include energy storage in the cogeneration system. The energy storage will store energy capacity at any time. This capacity will change during the day and go to zero when the sun when the generated electricity from intermittent supply is in excess and it will contribute sets. It is also optimal to let the wind power run at its maximum capacity, which will also electricity to the grid when demand exceeds supply. However, studies show that energy change with the intensity of the wind. The remaining power requirement will be taken care storage systems are generally expensive (Friberg, 1993). of by the biomass and fossil fuel power generation systems. As long as the system is designed to tackle all possible situations, as described, the customer will see the power generation system as totally reliable. The key issue in the whole system is to match 2.1 Basic Needs Analysis capacities of the total cogeneration system to the customers’ power requirements and to the The total system needs may be formulated as a combined need for electric power by the availability of the energy sources, solar radiation, and wind speed. society and a need for global environmental protection, formulated as follows:  There is a need for electric power, fairly distributed, to the society population Because of the intermittent nature of solar and wind power, when incorporating these  There is a need to replace fossil fuel as energy source for industrial and domestic generators into the grid, the total plant capacity must always exceed the maximum expected electric power generation on economic and environmental perspective. demand by a large margin (penalty for intermittence), in-order to increase system reliability. In NE-SL, where wind and solar power will be contributing most of the time, thermal plants that have higher operating fuel costs but cheaper to build become more attractive (such as 2.2 Basic Requirements Definition The system needs lead to requirements, which are consequences partly of the needs, partly natural gas plant), because the reduced operating time will make fuel costs less important. of the customer and user situation, and partly of conceptual solutions. The definition of There is a limitation on the extent to which the intermittent sources like solar and wind system requirements is an iterative process, which expands in detail, as the system baseline contribute to the total power generation. As the percentage of power generation of wind and concept is designed. At the present level of details, and the present system analysis, a set of solar increases, there is steady decline in value, because adding intermittent sources reduce requirements may be defined fairly simply: the reliability. Contribution from wind energy ranging from 0% to 50% of overall installed  The cost of electric power generation and distribution in NE-SL shall be within the capacity is feasible before operational losses become prohibitive (Grubb and Meyer, 1994). price range for customers and users in the rest Sri Lanka  Compared to the rest of Sri Lanka, the power generation system designed for NE- 3.2 Smaller the Better SL shall have the same or better, reliability, availability and fair distribution of For a developing country like NE-SL, which does not have any large-scale hydrologic electric power. Cogeneration system should also meet the customers’ power resource for electricity generation, the selection of optimum power plant mix should be requirement at any time based on small, affordable power generators. Reliability of the power generation and  The power generation system shall have none or minimal harmful pollution effects, distribution system will be increased if large number of small generators, scattered on the air, soil or water environment, or on the social environment. throughout the nation, is used rather than few large plants. By using a large number of smaller plants, the potential danger of over building or commissioning less cost effective There are some other requirements too, due to the varying nature of the intermittent energy large plants could be avoided. Small plants can be added quickly as they are needed and sources, and due to the economic requirement on conversion technology: