Table Of ContentFront cover:
In early June 1986, the advancing face of Hubbard Glacier, located in
Southeastern Alaska, closed off the entrance to Russell Fiord with an ice dam
that created the world's largest known modern glacier-dammed lake. This
Landsat TM CIR composite is from September 11, 1986. Over 70 miles long,
the Hubbard is North America's largest tidewater glacier. The Valerie Glacier, a
tributary to the Hubbard, moved at rates of up to 130 feet per day causing the
Hubbard to advance more than a mile during the summer of 1986. The current
advance is part of a long-term cycle of advance and retreat. About 800 years
ago, the glacier extended all the way to the mouth of Yakutat Bay. Because of
the ice dam, Russell Fiord became a lake and water level rose at a very rapid
rate during the summer months. Marine mammals (porpoise and seals) and
other marine life were trapped. If the lake had continued to rise, it was predict
ed that it would overflow to the south within a year. The dam formed by the
surging glacier broke on October 8, 1986, restoring the dammed-up lake to a
fiord, and recovering the vital sea-water environment for the marine life. It is
expected that the glacier will continue to surge and form another dam in the
future as the cycle continues. (Image data and description courtesy U.S.
Geological Survey [Meridian Data, 1991 #528])
Remote Sensing
Models and Methods for
Image Processing
Second Edition
Robert A. Schowengerdt
Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Schowengerdt, Robert A.
Remote sensing, models and methods for image processing / Robert
A. Schowengerdt. — 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: Techniques for image processing and classification in
remote sensing.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-12-628981-6 (alk. paper)
1. Image processing. 2. Remote-sensing images. I. Schowengerdt,
Robert A. Techniques for image processing and classification in
remote sensing. II. Title.
TA1632.S3 1997 97-8078
621.367—DC21 CIP
Printed in the United States of America
97 98 99 00 01 IP 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To my best friend, Amy
Image Gallery
Plate 1-1
Remote sensing imagery can provide a long-term record of man's impact on the
environment. This series of Landsat MSS images of the Twin Buttes copper
mining complex south of Tucson, Arizona, also includes irrigated pecan orchards
along the right side, and the growing retirement community of Green Valley
between the orchards and the mines. The large polygonal features are tailings
waste ponds from the open pit mining, and the presence of blue-black color indi
cates standing water on the surface. Note the noisy data in the 1974 image and
the cloud and its shadow in the 1977 image. The expansion of the mining activity
during this 13 year period is evident, as is growth in the irrigated agricultural
areas and in Green Valley (white-grey area at the lower right).
Plate 1-2
This July 23, 1990 AVIRIS image of Palo Alto, California, illustrates hyperspec
tral data. The CIR composite is made from bands 51, 27 and 17 (arrows in the
graph) displayed in red, green and blue, respectively, and represents only about
1.5% of the total data in the image. Five pixels were selected for extraction of
spectral profiles and are located at the centers of the 5x5 pixel yellow squares.
From left to right, they represent: dry grassland, building, Palo Alto golf course,
San Francisco Bay and salt evaporator pond. The spectral profiles are plotted
below, color coded to match the CIR composite colors. The AVIRIS data are
uncorrected for atmospheric effects; note the similarity between the golf course
(grass) profile and the simulated signature of Fig. 2-9 in Chapter 2. Atmospheric
scattering increasing towards the blue spectral region is evident in all the signa
tures, as are the H 2O and C O2 absorption bands. (Image courtesy of NASA/JPL)
xv
Image Gallery
xvi
Plate 1-3
This TM CIR composite from June 9, 1984, shows the All-American Canal used
to irrigate agriculture in the desert near Yuma, Arizona. Crops such as lettuce and
melons are typically grown in this area. The degree of "redness" indicates the
growth stage of the crop in a particular field; grey fields are fallow and black
fields are flooded with water. The Algodones Dunes at the top show periodic sand
dune patterns. An image acquired at a different date would likely show changes
in these patterns, as well as in the agricultural area.
Plate 1-4
The potential for remote sensing in global applications is illustrated in these two
images. They show the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) calcu
lated from AVHRR satellite data (an example of Level 3 processing, see Chapter
1) reduced to about 16km GIFOV At the top is a 10 day composite (used to
increase the potential for cloud-free coverage at every pixel) from May 1-10,
1992 and at the bottom is a composite from June 1-10, 1992. The degree of
"greeness" indicates the amount of green vegetation at the time. Note the increase
in vegetation between the two periods in the Northern Hemisphere, correspond
ing to spring growth. The geometric projection used here is known as the Inter
rupted Goode Homolosine equal-area projection (Goode, 1925; Steinwand,
1994). (NDVI data courtesy U.S. Geological Survey; image coloring by the
author)
Plate 1-5
This declassified photograph, showing a major Soviet strategic bomber base near
Dolon, Kazakhstan, was taken on August 20, 1966 with a KH-4A camera during
mission 1036 of the CORONA reconnaissance satellite. The original photo
graphic resolution of about 2 m allowed analysts to distinguish between heavy
bombers and transport aircraft on the airfield's main parking apron. CORONA
thus provided critical quantitative information to dispel the so-called "bomber
gap," as well as the "missile gap," of the 1960s. Military surveillance satellites
have become a vital component in national policy decision-making. CORONA
imagery was photographic and returned to earth in a re-entry capsule that was
retrieved in the lower atmosphere by hooking its parachute with a specially-
equipped airplane. This digital image was created by scanning a 30X enlarged
photograph at 300 pixels per inch. (Image and description courtesy of U. S. Geo
logical Survey)
August 22, 1972 November 15, 1973 June 1, 1974
November 14, 1975 May 30, 1976 June 30, 1977
October 11, 1978 July 13, 1983 June 14, 1985
Plate 1-1
400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
wavelength (nm)
Plate 1-2
Plate 1-3
May 1 - 10, 1992
June 1 -10, 1992
Plate 1-4
