Remote Sensing Geology

671 Pages·2003·24.45 MB·English

by  Dr. Ravi Prakash Gupta (auth.)

Ravi P. Gupta
Remote Sensing Geology
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
Ravi P. Gupta
Remote Sensing
Geology
Second Edition
With 453 Figures and 53 Tables
, Springer
Dr. Ravi Prakash Gupta
Professor ofEarth Resourees Teehnology
Department ofEarth Seienees
Indian Institute ofTeehnology Roorkee
(Formerly, University ofRoorkee)
Roorkee - 247667, India
E-mail: [email protected]
Cover page:
Doubly plunging folds in roeks of the Delhi Super Group (Landsat MSS4 infrared
band image).
Figure 16.24
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ISBN 978-3-642-07741-8 ISBN 978-3-662-05283-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-05283-9
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003
Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 2003
Softeover reprint ofthe hardcover 2nd edition 2003
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Preface to the Second Edition
The first edition of this book appeared in 1991, and since then there have been
many developments in the field of remote sensing, both in the direction of tech
nology of data acquisition as weH as in data processing and applications. This has
necessitated a new edition of the book.
The revised edition includes new and updated material on a number of topics -
SAR interferometry, hyperspectral sensing, digital imaging cameras, GPS princi
pie, new optical and microwave satellite sensors, and so me of the emerging tech
niques in digital image processing and GIS. Besides, a host of new geological ap
plications of remote sensing are also included.
The book has been thoroughly revised; nevertheless, it retains the originallong
axis and style, i.e. discuss the basic remote sensing principles, systems of data ac
quisition, data processing and present the wide ranging geological applications.
The following individuals reviewed parts of the manuscript, suggested im
provements and fumished missing links: R. P. Agarwal, M. K. Arora, R. Gens, U.
K. Haritashya, K. Hiller, H. Kaufmann, D. King, J. Mathew, F. vander Meer, R.
R. Navalgund, S. Nayak, A. Prakash, S. K. Rath, A. K. Saha, A. K. Sen, and A. N.
Singh. I am greatly obliged to them for their valuable inputs and suggestions in ar
riving at the final presentation.
I deeply appreciate the infinite patience and endurance of Sarvesh Kumar
Sharma in typing and computer-finishing the manuscript.
Finally, I am indebted to my wife Renu, for her encouragement and support,
particularly in times when no end appeared in sight.
Roorkee Ravi P. Gupta
November 2002
Preface to the First Edition
There has been phenomenal growth in the field of remote sensing over the last
two to three decades. It has been applied in the fields of geology, mineral explora
tion, forestry, agriculture, hydrology, soils, land use etc. - that is, in all pursuits of
sciences dealing with the features, processes, and phenomena operating at the
Earth's surface. The status of geological remote sensing has rapidly advanced and
the scientific literature is scattered. The aim of the present book is to systemati
cally discuss the specific requirements of geological remote sensing, to summarize
the techniques of remote sensing data collection and interpretation, and to inte
grate the technique into geo-exploration.
The main conceptual features of the book are:
- To combine various aspects of geological remote sensing, ranging from the
laboratory spectra of minerals and rocks to aerial and space-bome remote sens
ing.
- To integrate photo-geology into remote sensing.
- To promote remote sensing as a tool in integrated geo-exploration.
- To elucidate the wide-spectrum geoscientific applications of remote sensing,
ranging from meso to global scale.
The book has been written to satisfy the needs of mainly graduate students and
active research workers interested in applied Earth sciences. It is primarily concept
oriented rather than system or module oriented.
The organization of the book is detailed in Chapter 1 (Table 1.1). The book has
three chief segments: (1) techniques, sensors and interpretation of data in the opti
cal region; (2) techniques, sensors and interpretation of data in the microwave re
gion; and (3) data processing, integration and applications.
The idea for the book germinated as I prepared a course in remote sensing at the
University of Roorkee for graduate students, during which extensive lecture notes
were made. The book is an outcome of my teaching and research at the University
ofRoorkee, and partly also at the University ofMunich.
A wide-spectrum book in a field like remote sensing, where advancements are
taking place at such a fast pace, can hardly be exhaustive and up-to-date. Although
every effort has been made to incorporate recent developments, the priority has
been on concepts rather than on compilation of data alone (SPOT data examples
could not be included because of copyright limitations).
x
Preface
Sincere thanks are due to many individuals and organizations who have con
tributed in various ways to the book. Particularly, I am grateful to Dr. Rupert
Haydn, Managing Director, Gesellschaft fur Angewandte Femerkundung mbH,
Munich, Germany, and formerly at the University of Munich, for supplying nu
merous illustrations. He kindly provided many images for the book, and offered
blanket permission to select illustrations and examples from his wide and precious
collection. Dr. Haydn also spent valuable time reviewing parts of the text, offered
fruitful criticism and is responsible for many improvements.
Dr. Konrad Hiller, DLR Germany and formerly at the University of Munich,
provided what was needed most - inspiration and warm friendly support. Many
stimulating discussions with hirn promoted my understanding of the subject matter
and led to numerous reforms. Without Konrad's encouragement, this book may
not have seen the light of the day.
I am grateful to a number of people, particularly the following, for going
through parts of the manuscript of their interest, suggesting amendments and fur
nishing several missing links: K. Amason, R. Chander, R.P.S. Chhonkar, F. Jas
kolla, H. Kaufmann, F. Lehmann, G. Philip, A.K. Saraf, K.P. Sharma, V.N. Singh,
B.B.S. Singhal, R. Sinha, D.C. Srivastava, U. Terhalle, R.S. Tiwari, L.C.
Venkatadhri and P. Volk.
Thanks are also due to Prof. Dr. J. Bodechtel, Institut für Allgemeine und
Angewandie Geologie (Institute for General and Applied Geology), University of
Munich, for his advice, suggestions and free access to the facilities at Munich. The
Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, Bonn, and the Gesellschaft für Angewandte
Femerkundung mbH, Munich (Dr. R. Haydn) kindly provided financial support
for my visits and stay in Germany, during which parts ofthe book were written.
A book on remote sensing has to present many pietures and illustrations. A
large number of these were borrowed from colleagues, organizations, instrument
manufacturers, commercial firms and publications. These are acknowledged in the
captions.
For the excellent production ofthe book, the credit goes to Dr. W. Engel, Ms. I.
Scherich, Ms. G. Hess, Ms. lean von dem Bussche and Ms. Theodora Krammer of
Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg.
Although a number of people have directly and indirectly contributed to the
book, I alone am responsible for the statements made herein. It is possible that
some oversimplifications appear as erroneous statements. Suggestions from read
ers will be gratefully accepted.
Finally, I am indebted to my wife Renu for not only patiently enduring 4 years
of my preoccupation with the book, but also extending positive support and en
couragement.
If this book is able to generate interest in readers for this newly emerging tech
nology, I shall consider my efforts to be amply rewarded.
Roorkee, lune 1991 R. P. Gupta
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Definition and Scope .................................................... . 1
1.2 Development of Remote Sensing ...................................... . 1
1.3 Fundamental Principle .................................................. . 3
1.4 Advantages and Limitations ............................................ . 4
1.5 A Typical Remote Sensing Programme .............................. . 6
1.6 Field Data (Ground Truth) ............................................. . 9
1.6.1 Timing ofField Data Collection ...................................... . 9
1.6.2 Sampling ................................................................. . 10
1.6.3 Types ofField Data ..................................................... . 11
1.6.4 GPS Survey .............................................................. . 14
1.7 Scope and Organization ofthis Book ................................. . 16
Chapter 2: Physical Principles
2.1 The Nature ofEM Radiation ........................................... . 19
2.2 Radiation Principles and Sources ...................................... . 20
2.2.1 Radiation Terminology ................................................. . 20
2.2.2 Blackbody Radiation Principles ....................................... . 20
2.2.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum ............................................. . 23
2.2.4 Energy Available for Sensing ......................................... . 24
2.3 Atmospheric Effects ..................................................... . 24
2.3.1 Atmospheric Scattering ................................................. . 25
2.3.2 Atmospheric Absorption ............................................... . 26
2.3.3 Atmospheric Emission .................................................. . 28
2.4 Energy Interaction Mechanisms on the Ground ..................... . 28
2.4.1 Reflection Mechanism .................................................. . 28
2.4.2 Transmission Mechanism ............................................... . 30
2.4.3 Absorption Mechanism ................................................. . 32
2.4.4 Earth's Emission ........................................................ . 32