Religious Beliefs, Evolutionary Psychiatry, and Mental Health in America: Evolutionary Threat Assessment Systems Theory

340 Pages·2017·6 MB·English

by  Kevin J. Flannelly (auth.)

Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientifi c Approach
Kevin J. Flannelly
Religious Beliefs,
Evolutionary
Psychiatry, and
Mental Health in
America
Evolutionary Threat Assessment
Systems Theory
Religion, Spirituality and Health:
A Social Scientific Approach
Volume 1
Series Editors
Alphia Possamai-Inesedy, University of Western Sydney, Penrith,
New South Wales, Australia
Christopher G. Ellison, The University of Texas at San Antonio,
San Antonio, Texas, USA
Editorial Board
Amy Ai, Florida State University, Tallahassee, USA
Maureen Benjamins, Sinai Urban Health Institute, Chicago, USA
Alex Bierman, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
Matt Bradshaw, Baylor University, Waco, USA
Alexander Broom, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
George Fitchett, Rush University, Chicago, USA
Paul Heelas, Lancaster University, Bailrigg, UK
Terrence Hill, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA
Ellen Idler, Emory University, Druid Hills, USA
Harold Koenig, Duke University, Durham, USA
Neal Krause, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
Jeff Levin, Baylor University, Waco, USA
Pranee Liamputtong, Latrobe University, Melbourne, Australia
Keith Meador, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, USA
Doug Oman, University of California-Berkeley, Oakland, USA
Kenneth Pargament, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, USA
Crystal Park, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA
Jenny Trinitapoli, Pennsylvania State University, State College, USA
The relationship between religious/spiritual belief or behaviour and health behaviour
has been explored over several decades and across various disciplines. Religious
variables have consistently been found to have a direct relationship to physical and
mental health. At the same time - research has also indicated potential societal
tensions that can exist between religion and health – we have seen this in relation to
family planning, HIV/AIDS, and reproduction. This book series aims to uncover the
impact of religion on individual health behaviours and outcomes but also the
influence of religion on health practices at the community level. This book series
uncovers the impact of religion on individual health behaviors and outcomes, as
well as the influence of religion on health practices at the community level. It
consists of volumes that are based on multi-methodological approaches, provide
quantitative and qualitative forms of analysis, and advance the understanding of the
intersection between religion and health beyond the correlation of religious belief
and health outcomes. Building on earlier research, the series explores the direct
relationship between religious variables and physical and mental health, as well as
the potential societal tensions that have been shown to exist between religion and
health – for example in relation to family planning, HIV/AIDS, and reproduction.
Spoken values are often shared within religious communities; however, religious
influence can at times be extended outside of the community in instances of service
provisions such as hospital ownership, various research active think tanks, political
action, and the development of community mores.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13437
Kevin J. Flannelly
Religious Beliefs,
Evolutionary Psychiatry, and
Mental Health in America
Evolutionary Threat Assessment Systems
Theory
Kevin J. Flannelly
Center for Psychosocial Research
Massapequa, NY, USA
Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach
ISBN 978-3-319-52487-0 ISBN 978-3-319-52488-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-52488-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017935569
© Springer International Publishing AG 2017
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims
in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Printed on acid-free paper
This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature
The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Acknowledgments
I am deeply indebted to the late Dr. Eugene B. Brody, the longtime Editor-in-Chief
of The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, for affording me and my colleagues
a forum to publish our original theoretical paper on “Beliefs, Mental Health, and
Evolutionary Threat Assessment Systems in the Brain” and an earlier study about
belief in life after death and mental health that led directly to the development of
ETAS theory. I am also indebted to Professor Paul Gilbert of the University of
Derby, whose insights and guidance enabled us to publish the original theoretical
article and two subsequent articles about ETAS theory.
I thank my friend and colleague Chris Ellison (Dr. Christopher G. Ellison) for
spurring my interest in studying the connection between religious beliefs and men-
tal health, encouraging me to write this book, and providing me the opportunity to
publish the book in the Springer Series Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social
Scientific Approach, on which he is an editor. I thank my wife Laura (Dr. Laura
T. Flannelly), who is also my colleague and friend, for her support while writing the
book and for editing all the book chapters.
The studies in this book by my colleagues and me that were published between
2005 and 2010 were partly supported by a grant from the John Templeton Foundation
to HealthCare Chaplaincy in New York City for a 3-year “postdoctoral research fel-
lowship on religion and health” and subsequent Templeton funding of that program.
The studies by my colleagues and me that were published between 2011 and 2015
were funded, in part, by Templeton Grant # 21296, “Spiritual Beliefs as Predictors
of Mental Health: A Test of ETAS Theory” (Kevin J. Flannelly, Ph.D., and Kathleen
Galek, Ph.D., coprincipal investigators). I am grateful to Dr. Jackson Kytle for his
advocacy of theory development and basic research at HealthCare Chaplaincy dur-
ing his tenure there as the Vice President of Academic Affairs.
v
Contents
1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Religious Belonging, Behaving, and Believing ............................ 1
1.2 Personal Perspective and the Book’s Organization ....................... 2
1.3 Religious Beliefs Examined in This Book .................................... 5
1.4 Brief Summary of ETAS Theory ................................................... 5
1.5 Levels of Analysis of ETAS Theory .............................................. 6
References ................................................................................................. 8
Part I T he Origin of Evolutionary Ideas in Historical
and Religious Context
2 Greek Philosophy, Early Christian Theology,
Purpose, and Change .............................................................................. 11
2.1 Greek Philosophers........................................................................ 11
2.2 Aristotle ......................................................................................... 13
2.3 Christian Theology and Creation .................................................. 15
2.4 Christian Theology and Evolution................................................. 16
2.5 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 17
References ................................................................................................. 17
3 The Reformation and The Enlightenment ............................................ 19
3.1 The Reformation............................................................................ 19
3.2 Carl von Linnẻ (Carolus Linnaeus) ............................................... 20
3.3 The Enlightenment ........................................................................ 21
3.3.1 G eorges-Louis Leclerc Buffon ....................................... 22
3.3.2 E rasmus Darwin ............................................................. 23
3.4 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 25
References ................................................................................................. 25
vii
viii Contents
4 19th Century Evolutionary Thought Before Charles Darwin ............ 29
4.1 Geology and the Fossil Record ..................................................... 29
4.2 William Paley’s Natural Theology ................................................ 30
4.3 Jean Baptiste de Monet Lamarck .................................................. 31
4.4 Between Lamarck and Darwin ...................................................... 34
4.5 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 35
References ................................................................................................. 36
Part II Charles Darwin’s Theories of Evolution
and Reactions to Them
5 Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species ....................................................... 41
5.1 Development of Darwin’s Ideas .................................................... 41
5.2 Darwin’s Delay in Publishing ....................................................... 43
5.3 Darwin’s Origin of Species............................................................ 44
5.4 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 46
References ................................................................................................. 47
6 Reactions to Darwin’s Origin of Species ............................................... 49
6.1 Initial Reactions to the Origin of Species ...................................... 49
6.2 Creation Science and Intelligent Design ....................................... 50
6.3 The Modern Synthesis ................................................................... 51
6.4 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 53
References ................................................................................................. 53
7 D arwin’s Descent of Man and The Expression of Emotions ................ 55
7.1 Darwin’s Descent of Man .............................................................. 55
7.2 Darwin’s Expression of Emotions ................................................. 56
7.2.1 E xpressions of Fear and Anger ...................................... 57
7.2.2 E xpression of Other Emotions ....................................... 57
7.2.3 C ommon Descent of Emotions ...................................... 58
7.3 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 58
References ................................................................................................. 59
8 R eactions to The Expression of Emotions.............................................. 61
8.1 American Psychology.................................................................... 62
8.2 European Ethology ........................................................................ 63
8.3 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 65
References ................................................................................................. 65
Part III Evolutionary Psychiatry
9 Brain Evolution and Emotions .............................................................. 71
9.1 The Triune Brain and Behavior ..................................................... 71
9.2 The Triune Brain and Emotions .................................................... 73
9.3 The Neocortex ............................................................................... 74
9.4 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 75
References ................................................................................................. 75
Contents ix
10 Fear in the Animal and Human Brain .................................................. 79
10.1 Fear in the Animal Brain ............................................................... 79
10.1.1 Brain Stem ..................................................................... 80
10.1.2 Basal Ganglia ................................................................. 81
10.1.3 Limbic System ............................................................... 81
10.1.4 Prefrontal Cortex ............................................................ 82
10.2 Fear in the Human Brain ............................................................... 82
10.2.1 Brain Stem ..................................................................... 82
10.2.2 Basal Ganglia ................................................................. 82
10.2.3 Limbic System ............................................................... 83
10.2.4 Prefrontal Cortex ............................................................ 84
10.3 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 84
References ................................................................................................. 85
11 Anxiety Disorders as Evolutionary Adaptations .................................. 91
11.1 Background ................................................................................... 92
11.2 Fear of Small Animals ................................................................... 92
11.3 Acrophobia (Fear of Heights)........................................................ 94
11.4 Panic Attack and Agoraphobia ...................................................... 94
11.5 Social Phobia (Social Anxiety) ..................................................... 96
11.6 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder ................................................... 96
11.7 General Anxiety ............................................................................. 98
11.8 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 98
References ................................................................................................. 99
12 Other Psychiatric Disorders as Evolutionary Adaptations ................. 103
12.1 Depression ..................................................................................... 103
12.2 Somatization .................................................................................. 104
12.3 Paranoid Ideation ........................................................................... 105
12.4 Problems with Proximate Mechanisms ......................................... 108
12.5 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 109
References ................................................................................................. 109
13 Beliefs and Psychiatric Symptoms ......................................................... 113
13.1 The Nature of Beliefs .................................................................... 113
13.1.1 Folk Beliefs .................................................................... 115
13.1.2 Religious Beliefs as Folk Beliefs ................................... 116
13.2 Beliefs and Psychiatric Symptoms ................................................ 117
13.3 Beliefs and the Brain ..................................................................... 119
13.4 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 120
References ................................................................................................. 120
14 E volutionary Threat Assessment Systems Theory ............................... 125
14.1 Background ................................................................................... 125
14.2 Brain Regions Involved in Different Psychiatric Disorders .......... 127
14.3 ETAS in the Brain ......................................................................... 128
14.4 The Operation of ETAS ................................................................. 131
x Contents
14.4.1 The vmPFC in Deductive Reasoning and the Influence
of Beliefs ........................................................................ 131
14.4.2 Threat, Safety, and the vmPFC ...................................... 131
14.4.3 The Role of the vmPFC in Threat Assessment .............. 133
14.4.4 The Role of Other PFC Regions in Threat
Assessment ..................................................................... 133
14.4.5 Description of ETAS Functioning .................................. 134
14.5 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 135
References ................................................................................................. 136
Part IV Religious Beliefs and Mental Health
15 B elief in God and Life-After-Death Among American Adults ............ 143
15.1 Background ................................................................................... 143
15.2 Americans’ Belief in God.............................................................. 144
15.3 Americans’ Beliefs About God ..................................................... 145
15.4 Americans’ Belief in Life-After-Death ......................................... 147
15.5 Afterlife Beliefs of Several Major Religions ................................. 148
15.5.1 Jewish Afterlife Beliefs .................................................. 148
15.5.2 Christian Afterlife Beliefs .............................................. 148
15.5.3 Islamic Afterlife Beliefs ................................................. 149
15.5.4 Hindu and Buddhist Beliefs ........................................... 149
15.6 Different Afterlife Beliefs Among Americans ............................... 149
15.7 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 150
References ................................................................................................. 150
16 R eligion and Death Anxiety.................................................................... 153
16.1 Denying Death ............................................................................... 153
16.2 I ntrinsic and Extrinsic Religious Orientation and Death Anxiety ..... 154
16.3 Belief in Life-After-Death and Death Anxiety .............................. 157
16.4 Other Religious Beliefs and Death Anxiety .................................. 158
16.5 Religious Beliefs and Specific Fears About Death ........................ 160
16.6 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 161
References ................................................................................................. 162
17 Belief in Life-After-Death and Mental Health ..................................... 165
17.1 Background ................................................................................... 165
17.2 Belief in Life-After-Death and Psychological Well-Being ........... 166
17.3 Belief in an Afterlife and Psychiatric Symptoms .......................... 168
17.4 Chapter Highlights and Comments ............................................... 170
References ................................................................................................. 170
18 Beliefs About Life-After-Death and Psychiatric Symptoms ............... 173
18.1 Different Afterlife Beliefs and Psychiatric Symptoms .................. 174
18.2 Beliefs About the Afterlife, the World,
and Psychiatric Symptoms ............................................................ 175