Reforming HUDUD Ordinances to reconcile Islamic Criminal Law with International Human Rights ...

252 Pages·2016·2.03 MB·English

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN
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REFORMING HUDUD ORDINANCES

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TO RECONCILE ISLAMIC CRIMINAL LAW
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WITH INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW

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e Mark A. Gabriel
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Thesis presented for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in the Department of Public Law, Faculty of Law,
University of Cape Town
July 2016
Supervisor
Professor Waheeda Amien
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The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No
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quotation from it or information derived from it is to be

published without full acknowledgeement of the source.
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The thesis is to be used for private study or non-
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commercial research purposes only.

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Published by the Universit y of Cape Town (UCT) in terms
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of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author.
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© Mark A. Gabriel –– Ph.D. Research –– University of Cape Town

DECLARATION

I, Mark A. Gabriel, hereby declare that the work on which this thesis is based is my original
work (except where acknowledgements indicate otherwise) and that neither the whole work
nor any part of it has been, is being, or is to be submitted for another degree in this or any
other university. I authorise the University to reproduce for the purpose of research either the
whole or any portion of the contents in any manner whatsoever.

Mark A. Gabriel, 18 August 2016

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© Mark A. Gabriel –– Ph.D. Research –– University of Cape Town
Reforming hudud ordinances to reconcile Islamic criminal law with international human
rights law
ABSTRACT
International human rights laws are grossly violated by the hudud ordinances, with their
extremely cruel punishments, including stoning for adultery, beheading for apostasy, and
amputation for theft. Pakistan, Sudan, Brunei Darussalam and Saudi Arabia, for example,
follow the doctrines of the four main Sunni schools of jurisprudence and enforce hudud
ordinances, thereby violating some of the core international human rights law instruments to
which they are State Parties. Orthodox Muslims generally defend the hudud ordinances,
claiming that they are divine and immutable.
This study refutes the aforementioned claim and demonstrates that it is legitimate and
possible to reform hudud punishments to reconcile them with international human rights law.
The thesis differentiates between Shariah and Islamic law. It argues that Shariah refers to the
divine rulings recorded in the Qur'an and correct Sunnah, while Islamic law is not fully
divine, for it includes also such prescriptions that have been developed by the human effort of
Islamic jurists.
The thesis demonstrates that reformation is an Islamic concept that requires that Muslims
read the teachings of the Qur'an and the Sunnah in the context of their own time and
environment. It is postulated, therefore, that the rulings of Islamic law need to be examined in
the light of the Qur'an, the correct Sunnah and the Islamic core values promoted in them.
These include several internationally protected human rights, such as the right to life,
equality, and freedom of religion.
The thesis points out that the main purpose of Shariah is to serve the benefit of the people
and to protect them from harm. To this end, Shariah has provided the Islamic principles of
reality and necessity. These require that the reality of life and the needs of the people be
considered at all times. If necessary for the sake of the people, the principles allow for
exceptions to be made to even definite provisions. It, further, demonstrates how these
principles can be applied to reform the hudud ordinances to reconcile them with international
human rights law.
Mark A. Gabriel, 18 August 2016

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© Mark A. Gabriel –– Ph.D. Research –– University of Cape Town
Table of Contents

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................ II
ABSTRACT III
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................... VIII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... IX
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1
I Background of the research ....................................................................................... 1
II Research question and description of the problem .................................................... 6
III Limitation of the research .......................................................................................... 7
IV Main argument ........................................................................................................... 8
V Significance and contribution of the study .............................................................. 10
VI Methodology ............................................................................................................ 11
VII Sources ..................................................................................................................... 12
VIII Structure of the thesis .............................................................................................. 15
CHAPTER 2 – ISLAMIC CRIMINAL LAW .............................................................. 19
I Introduction .............................................................................................................. 19
II Shariah versus Islamic law ...................................................................................... 20
(a) Sunni primary sources of Shariah .................................................................... 21
(b) Secondary and subsidiary sources of Shariah .................................................. 25
III Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) ..................................................................................... 28
(a) The historical development of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) ............................. 29
(b) The four main Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence .................................... 31
(c) The current debate over Islamic jurisprudence ................................................. 34
IV Islamic law ............................................................................................................... 37
(a) Islamic criminal law ......................................................................................... 38
(b) Hudud ordinances ............................................................................................. 40
V Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 51
CHAPTER 3 THE CONFLICT BETWEEN THE ISLAMIC WORLD AND
INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS .............................................. 53
I Introduction .............................................................................................................. 53
II The conflict between the Islamic world and international human rights ................. 55
(a) Islamic reservations against international human rights laws .......................... 55
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© Mark A. Gabriel –– Ph.D. Research –– University of Cape Town
i. The view of human rights as a western invention ................................................ 56
ii. The historical development of international human rights law ............................ 58
iii. The Islamic world’s attitude towards international human rights laws ............... 61
iv. The debated universality of human rights ............................................................ 64
v. The protection of religion as a limit to individuals’ human rights ....................... 66
(b) The conflict of hudud ordinances with international human rights laws.......... 68
i. Cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment ......................................................... 68
ii. Discrimination — a violation of the principle of equality ................................... 69
iii. Violation of freedom of thought, conscience and religion ................................... 70
iv. Death penalty ....................................................................................................... 70
v. Procedural abuses ................................................................................................. 71
vi. Conflicts of the individual hudud crimes with international human rights laws . 72
(c) The influence of Islamic jurisprudence on the conflict of hudud ordinances
with human rights ............................................................................................. 73
i. Apostasy (al-riddah) ............................................................................................ 74
ii. Adultery and fornication (zina) ............................................................................ 76
iii. Drinking (shurb al-khamr) ................................................................................... 79
iv. Theft (sariqa) ....................................................................................................... 80
v. Fighting against Allah and His Messenger (haraba) ........................................... 81
(d) The different Muslim positions towards hudud ordinances and human rights . 84
i. The orthodox Muslim view — defending hudud ordinances and rejecting reforms
84
ii. Secular Muslim view — calling for the separation of religion and state ............. 85
iii. The moderate Muslim position — striving to build bridges ................................ 86
III Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 88
CHAPTER 4 HUDUD ORDINANCES ACCORDING TO THE FOUR SUNNI
SCHOOLS OF JURISPRUDENCE ..................................................... 90
I Introduction .............................................................................................................. 90
II The legal prescriptions of hudud ordinances according to the four Sunni schools of
jurisprudence ............................................................................................................ 92
(a) Illicit sexual intercourse (zina) ......................................................................... 95
(b) Defamation (qazf) ............................................................................................. 99
(c) Theft (sariqa) .................................................................................................. 101
(d) Drinking alcohol (shurb al-khamr) ................................................................. 104
(e) Highway robbery (qata al-tariq) .................................................................... 106
(f) Fighting against Allah and His Messenger (haraba) ...................................... 108
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© Mark A. Gabriel –– Ph.D. Research –– University of Cape Town
(g) Rebellion (al-baghi)........................................................................................ 109
(h) Apostasy (al-riddah) ....................................................................................... 111
III The practical application of hudud ordinances in the Islamic world ..................... 112
(a) The case of the Hanafi school in Pakistan ...................................................... 117
(b) The case of the Maliki school in Sudan .......................................................... 119
(a) The case of the Shafei school in Brunei Darussalam ..................................... 120
(b) The case of the Hanbali school in Saudi Arabia ............................................. 122
IV Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 124
CHAPTER 5 THE CONCEPT OF REFORMATION IN ISLAM ........................... 127
I Introduction ............................................................................................................ 127
II The concept of reformation in the Qur'an and the Sunnah .................................... 129
(a) Allah’s promise to send reformers .................................................................. 130
(b) The Farewell Sermon of the Prophet Muhammad .......................................... 131
i. Life and property ................................................................................................ 133
ii. Women’s dignity and rights ............................................................................... 136
iii. Justice without discrimination ........................................................................... 137
iv. Spirit of brotherhood .......................................................................................... 138
(c) Reformation in the Qur'an .............................................................................. 139
III Shariah and reformation ........................................................................................ 142
(a) The purposes of Shariah (maqased al-Shariah) ............................................. 142
i. The jurisprudence of necessity (fiqh al-darurah) .............................................. 143
ii. The jurisprudence of reality (fiqh al-waqa) ....................................................... 145
(b) Two major obstacles for reformation ............................................................. 147
i. The protection of the religion............................................................................. 147
ii. The right of Allah ............................................................................................... 150
IV Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 155
CHAPTER 6 AN ATTEMPT TO REFORM HUDUD ORDINANCES .................. 159
I Introduction ............................................................................................................ 159
II Why amend hudud ordinances? ............................................................................. 162
III The legal challenge and approaches to amending hudud ordinances .................... 166
(a) The challenge of the ‘definite’ texts ............................................................... 166
(c) The principles of necessity and reality (fiqh al-darurah, fiqh al-waqa) ........ 167
(d) The Islamic principle of doubt (shub’ha) ....................................................... 169
(e) Examples of the amendment of definite texts................................................. 171
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© Mark A. Gabriel –– Ph.D. Research –– University of Cape Town
i. Examples from the Qur'an and Sunnah for the amendment of definite provisions
171
ii. Example in the modern history for the amendment of definite provisions ........ 173
(f) Re-reading the five indispensables ................................................................. 174
IV Suggestions for amending hudud ordinances ........................................................ 175
(a) Hudud prescriptions developed by Islamic jurisprudence .............................. 176
i. Beheading for apostasy (al-riddah) ................................................................... 177
ii. Public flogging for drinking alcohol .................................................................. 180
iii. Stoning for adultery ........................................................................................... 183
(b) Hudud punishments prescribed by the Qur'an ................................................ 187
i. Flogging (and one year exile) for adultery (and fornication) ............................. 187
ii. Flogging for defamation (qazf) .......................................................................... 191
iii. Amputation for theft .......................................................................................... 193
iv. Execution, crucifixion, amputation or exile for haraba ..................................... 195
V Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 198
CHAPTER 7 – CONCLUSION.................................................................................. 201
I Introduction ............................................................................................................ 201
II Main findings of the research ................................................................................ 203
(a) Questioning hudud ordinances is fully legitimate and necessary ................... 203
(b) Shariah promotes human rights and reformation and aims to serve the benefit
of the people ................................................................................................... 204
(c) Suggestions for reformation ........................................................................... 206
III Main conclusion and contribution of the study ..................................................... 208
(a) Recommendations........................................................................................... 210
(b) Suggestions for further research ..................................................................... 210
Bibliography .................................................................................................................... 210

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© Mark A. Gabriel –– Ph.D. Research –– University of Cape Town

DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to my family in Egypt:
my parents, sister and brothers whom I love dearly,
and to all Muslims who are striving to live in peace, liberty and justice.
May this work help to bring forth what your hearts are longing for.

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© Mark A. Gabriel –– Ph.D. Research –– University of Cape Town

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I sincerely thank my supervisor, Professor Waheeda Amien for her supervision, guidance and
critical comments and advice that has helped to shape this thesis.
My beloved wife, Unja, is thanked for the sacrifices she has made and the great support
she has given me throughout the long journey I have taken to complete this research.
I also thank Patricia Phillips, Deputy Faculty Manager, and Tanya Barben for their
assistance and encouragement.

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