Recent Sedimentary Carbonates: Part 1 Marine Carbonates

379 Pages·1974·13.744 MB·English

by  John D. Milliman, German Müller, Ulrich Förstner (auth.)

I

Recent Sedimentary Carbonates
In Two Parts by
1. D. Milliman· G. MUller· U. Forstner
Part!
J. D. Milliman
Marine Carbonates
With 94 Figures and 39 Plates
Springer-Verlag Berlin· Heidelberg· New York 1974
JOHN D. MILLIMAN
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Woods Hole, MA 02543/USA
For the cover plates V (a) and VII (a) D of this volume have been used
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-65530-2 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-65528-9
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-65528-9
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agreement with the publisher. © by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1974. Library of Congress Catalog Card
Number 73-82359. The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations
and therefore free for general use. Typesetting, printing and bookbinding: Universitatsdruckerei H. StUrtz AG,
Wiirzburg.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1974
To my father, E. B. Milliman
and my teacher, J. E. Hoffmeister
Foreword
Few fields of research in the earth sciences have produced as much data and litera
ture as the study of carbonate sediments and rocks. The past 25 years in particular,
have seen a significant increase in studies concerning modern marine and fresh
water carbonates. With the present worldwide interest in oceanographic research,
marine carbonates have received the bulk of the attention, particularly with
respect to shallow-water sediments. However, in terms of the variety of environ
ments, compositions and modes of formation, non-marine carbonates probably
encompass a wider spectrum than do marine types.
Our purpose is to present a two-volume treatise on carbonate sediments and
rocks, both marine and non-marine. We have confined ourselves to the discussion
of modern (Holocene) environments, sediments and components, assuming that
the compilation of these data will not only be relevant to those working with
modern carbonates but will also serve as a necessary reference source for those
interested in ancient analogs. The first volume, by MILLIMAN, deals almost exclu
sively with marine environments, while the second volume, by MULLER and FORST
NER, will concentrate on the non-marine carbonates.
JOHN D. MILLIMAN
GERMAN MULLER
ULRICH FORSTNER
Preface
This book is an attempt to synthesize our present-day knowledge about calcium
carbonate in the marine environment, its composition, sedimentation and diage
nesis. Because of the rapid increase in marine carbonate research in the past
25 years, the need for such a book is obvious. The classic texts on carbonate
rocks (SCHMIDT, PIA and CAYEUX) are not only out of print, but with respect
to marine carbonate sedimentation, are largely out of date. Discussion of modern
carbonate sedimentation has been treated in numerous review articles and in
several books, but for the most part these discussions have been restricted to trop
ical reefs and banks, often limited to the Caribbean area (for example, see BAT
HURST, 1971). Similarly, recent advances in carbonate petrography have not been
summarized. Books by MAJEWSKI (1969) and HOROWITZ and POTTER (1971) tend
to emphasize ancient rather than modern skeletal components.
Perhaps the most obvious need in such a synthesis is in documenting the
mineralogy and chemistry of carbonate components and marine limestones.
A. P. VINOGRADOV'S massive compilation of the compositions of various marine
organisms was based mainly on pre-World War II data, and does not take into
account the rapid advances in conceptual models and instrumentation that have
occurred during the past 25 years. New data on the mineralogy, minor and trace
elements and stable isotopes have been published at an ever-increasing rate.
With these needs in mind, I have tried to summarize the available information
concerning marine carbonates. The view is from the eyes of a marine geologist;
I have not treated ancient limestones nor freshwater carbonates and subaerial
diagenesis. Discussions of these various subjects, however, are available in other
recent books (BATHURST, 1971; FUCHTBAUER and MULLER, 1970; G. MULLER,
in preparation).
The book is divided into four parts, each dealing with a specific aspect of marine
carbonates. Part one discusses calcium carbonate and its stability within the marine
environment (Chapter 1) and also treats the various methods used in carbonate
study (Chapter 2). The second part concerns the ecology, calcification, petrography
and composition of various skeletal and non-skeletal carbonate components
(Chapters 3-5), while the third part deals with the distribution of these compo
nents in shallow seas (Chapter 6), shelf waters (Chapter 7), and the deep sea
(Chapter 8). Part four traces the diagenetic alteration of carbonates (within the
marine environment), through degradation (Chapter 9), cementation (Chapter 10),
and dolomitization (Chapter 11).
A special note should be made concerning the-composition tables given in
Chapters 3 and 4. Complete listings of all analytical data are not given, simply
because the amounts of published data are too extensive and unwieldy. Instead I
x
Preface
have presented average compositions of representative genera. The range of values
used in compiling the averages are given in parentheses below the average values. If
the composition of a genus varies greatly between different published analyses
(probably the result of an analytical error or different environmental or physio
logical factors), averages of the various analyses have been listed separately.
In some skeletal groups (notably coralline algae and serpulids) sparse by
published data have been supplemented by unpublished analyses performed
by the writer. Otherwise all the data listed in the various tables have been taken
exclusively from the literature; the interested reader is referred to those references
listed in each table caption.
This book could not have been written without the help, encouragement and
critical reading of many individuals. Much of the book was written during the
tenure of a six-month Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung Stipendium at the La
boratorium flir Sedimentforschung, UniversiHit Heidelberg; I thank Professor
GERMAN MOLLER for supplying me with the space and facHicies to do this research.
H. G. MULTER, JENS MOLLER, C. H. MOORE, JR., C. D. GEBELEIN, W. R. COBB,
and S. HONJO supplied valuable illustrations and photographs. K. O. EMERY,
M. R. CARRIKER, T. J. M. SCHOPF, JENS MOLLER, J. C. HATHAWAY, W. H. ADEY
and D. P. ABBOTT, S. HONJO, F. T. SAYLES, J. L. BISCHOFF, J. 1. TRACEY, H. S.
LADD and P. R. SUPKO all read and commented on parts of the manuscript, but,
of course, final responsibility for any errors in the text remains mine.
DONALD SOUZA did all the drafting, and FRANK MEDEIROS much of the photo
graphic work. Typing was done mostly by ANNE RILEY and ANITA TUCHOLKE,
with help from BETTY HEMENWAY and ANNE COLLINS.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to ANN, CHRISTOPHER and HEATHER,
who gave their constant support and understanding throughout the three years
of research and writing.
Woods Hole, Massachusetts JOHN D. MILLIMAN
October, 1973
Contents
Part 1. Introduction. . . . . . .
Chapter 1. Carbonates and the Ocean . 3
Carbonate Mineralogy . 3
The Oceans as a Chemical System 5
The CO System in the Oceans . 7
2
pH ............ . 9
Alkalinity . . . . . . . . . . 10
Variations in the CO in Nature 11
2
Calcium Carbonate in Sea Water. 12
Chapter 2. Methods. . . 16
Texture .. 16
Petrography 17
Sediment Impregnation 19
Peels .. 19
Mineralogy . . . . 20
Staining ..... 20
X-ray Diffraction. 21
Quantitative Mineralogy. 22
MgC0 Content in Carbonate 28
3
Chemical Composition . . . . 29
Calcium Carbonate Determination 29
Elemental Analysis 30
Stable Isotopes. . . . . . . . . 30
Part II. Carbonate Components . . 35
Chapter 3. Non-Skeletal Components. 37
Lithoc1asts . 37
Pelletoids . . . . . . . 37
Ooids ........ . 41
Aggregates and Cryptocrystalline Lumps. 42
Composition of Non-Skeletal Carbonates 47
Origin of Non-Skeletal Carbonates . . . 47
XII Contents
Chapter 4. Skeletal Components 52
Plants. . . . . . . 52
Cyanophyta (Blue-green Algae). 52
Chrysophyta (Coccolithophorids) . 54
Rhodophyta (Red Algae) . . . . 58
Ecology, Growth Rates and Sedimentary Distribution. 59
Petrography. . . . . . 61
Composition. . . . . . 62
Phaecophyta (Brown Algae) 66
Chlorophyta (Green Algae) 67
Ecology, Calcification and Sedimentary Significance. 67
Petrography . 72
Composition . 72
Dinoflagellates. 75
Invertebrates. . . 75
Foraminifera. . 75
Ecology and Sedimentary Significance. 78
Composition. 81
Tintinnida. . 84
Porifera. . . . 84
Coelenterata. . 86
Ecology and Calcification 88
Hydrozoa . . . . . . . 90
Octocorallia . . . . . . 91
Zoantharia (Scleractinia). 94
Stable Isotopes. . . . 96
Bryozoa. . . . . . . . 97
Ecology and Petrology 97
Composition . 98
Brachiopoda. . 101
Mollusca . . . 102
Amphineura . 103
Scaphopoda . 104
Cephalopoda. 104
Pteropoda . 104
Pelecypoda . 107
Gastropoda . 109
Variations in Gastropod and Pelecypod Composition 109
Annelida . 117
Arthropoda . 120
Cirripedia . 120
Ostracoda. 125
Decapoda . 126
Other Arthropods 126
Echinodermata. . . 126