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Real-life math PDF

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Real- Real- Life Life Math Math RReeaall-- LLiiffee MMaatthh VVoolluummee 11:: AA––LL K. Lee Lerner & Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, Editors Real- Real- Life Life Math Math Volume 2: M–Z Volume 2: M–Z Field of Application Index Field of Application Index General Index General Index K. Lee Lerner & Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, Editors Real-Life Math K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, Editors Project Editor Indexing Composition Kimberley A. McGrath Factiva, a Dow Jones & Reuters Company Evi Seoud, Mary Beth Trimper Editorial Rights and Acquisitions Manufacturing Luann Brennan, Meggin M. Condino, Margaret Abendroth, Timothy Sisler Wendy Blurton, Dorothy Maki Madeline Harris, Paul Lewon, Imaging and Multimedia Elizabeth Manar Lezlie Light, Denay Wilding Editorial Support Services Product Design Andrea Lopeman Pamela Galbreath, Tracey Rowens © 2006 Thomson Gale, a part of the Thomson mechanical, including photocopying, record- While every effort has been made to ensure Corporation. ing, taping, Web distribution, or information the reliability of the information presented in storage retrieval systems—without the written this publication, Thomson Gale does not guar- Thomson and Star Logo are trademarks and permission of the publisher. antee the accuracy of the data contained Gale and UXL are registered trademarks used herein. Thomson Gale accepts no payment for herein under license. For permission to use material from this listing; and inclusion in the publication of any product, submit your request via Web at organization, agency, institution, publication, For more information, contact: http://www.gale-edit.com/permissions, or you service, or individual does not imply endorse- Thomson Gale may download our Permissions Request form ment of the editors or publisher. Errors 27500 Drake Rd. and submit your request by fax or mail to: brought to the attention of the publisher and Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Or you can visit our Internet site at Permissions verified to the satisfaction of the publisher http://www.gale.com Thomson Gale will be corrected in future editions. 27500 Drake Rd. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 No part of this work covered by the copyright Permissions Hotline: hereon may be reproduced or used in any 248-699-8006 or 800-877-4253, ext. 8006 form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or Fax: 248-699-8074 or 800-762-4058 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Real-life math / K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, editors. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7876-9422-3 (set : hardcover: alk. paper)— ISBN 0-7876-9423-1 (v. 1)—ISBN 0-7876-9424-X (v. 2) 1. Mathematics—Encyclopedias. I. Lerner, K. Lee. II. Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth. QA5.R36 2006 510’.3—dc22 2005013141 This title is also available as an e-book, ISBN 1414404999 (e-book set). ISBN: 0-7876-9422-3 (set); 0-7876-9423-1 (v1); 0-7876-9424-X (v2) Contact your Gale sales representative for ordering information. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Entries (With Areas ofDiscussion) . . . . . . . vii Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix List ofAdvisors and Contributors . . . . . . . xxi Entries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Volume 1: A–L Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Architectural Math . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Average. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Table of Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Business Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Contents Calculator Math . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Cartography. . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 Charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Computers and Mathematics . . . . . . . .114 Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122 Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . .131 Decimals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . .141 Discrete Mathematics . . . . . . . . . .144 Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . .156 Elliptic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . .159 Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161 Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167 Factoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180 Financial Calculations,Personal . . . . . . .184 Fractals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198 Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203 Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 Game Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215 Game Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . .225 Geometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232 Graphing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248 Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262 Information Theory . . . . . . . . . . .269 Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278 Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284 Linear Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . .287 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300 v R E A L - L I F E M A T H Table of Contents Rounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449 Volume 2: M–Z Rubric. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453 Matrices and Determinants. . . . . . . . .303 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . .307 Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465 Medical Mathematics. . . . . . . . . . .314 Scientific Math . . . . . . . . . . . . .473 Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328 Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . .484 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . .335 Sequences,Sets,and Series . . . . . . . . .491 Music and Mathematics . . . . . . . . . .343 Sports Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495 Nature and Numbers . . . . . . . . . . .353 Square and Cube Roots . . . . . . . . . .511 Negative Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . .356 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516 Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . .360 Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529 Odds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .365 Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537 Percentages . . . . . . . . . . . . . .372 Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543 Perimeter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385 Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553 Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . .557 Photography Math . . . . . . . . . . .398 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568 Plots and Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . .404 Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575 Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .416 Word Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . .583 Prime Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . .420 Zero-sum Games . . . . . . . . . . . .595 Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599 Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .430 Field ofApplication Index . . . . . . . . .605 Quadratic,Cubic,and Quartic Equations . . . .438 Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441 General Index . . . . . . . . . . . . .609 vi R E A L - L I F E M A T H Addition Financial Addition. . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Geometric Progression . . . . . . . . . . 6 Poker,Probability,and Other Uses ofAddition . . 5 Sports and Fitness Addition. . . . . . . . . 3 Using Addition to Predict and Entertain . . . . 6 Algebra Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Building Skyscrapers . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Buying Light Bulbs . . . . . . . . . . . 20 College Football . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Entries Crash Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Fingerprint Scanners . . . . . . . . . . . 22 (With Areas Flying an Airplane. . . . . . . . . . . . 16 of Discussion) Fundraising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Personal Finances . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Population Dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . 22 Private Space Travel . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Skydiving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Teleportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 UPC Barcodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Algorithms Archeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Computer Programming . . . . . . . . . 27 Credit Card Fraud Detection . . . . . . . . 27 Cryptology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Data Mining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Digital Animation and Digital Model Creation . . 28 DNA or Genetic Analysis . . . . . . . . . 28 Encryption and Encryption Devices . . . . . . 28 The Genetic Code . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Internet Data Transmission. . . . . . . . . 29 Linguistics,the Study ofLanguage . . . . . . 31 Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Market or Sales Analysis . . . . . . . . . . 30 Operational Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . 27 Security Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Sports Standings and Seedings. . . . . . . . 31 Tax Returns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Architectural Math Architectural Concepts in Wheels. . . . . . . 43 Architectural Symmetry in Buildings . . . . . 38 vii R E A L - L I F E M A T H Entries (With Areas of Discussion) Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Base Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Ergonomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Base 2 and Computers . . . . . . . . . . 60 Geometry,Basic Forms and Shapes of . . . . . 40 Golden Rectangle and Golden Ratio . . . . . . 38 Business Math Grids,Use of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Jewelry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Earnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Ratio and Proportion,Use of . . . . . . . . 38 Payroll. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Scale Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Profits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Space,Use Of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Calculator Math Symmetry in City Planning. . . . . . . . . 41 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Bridge Construction . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Textile and Fabrics. . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Combinatorics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Financial Transactions . . . . . . . . . . 73 Area Measurement Calculations . . . . . . . . . 75 Nautical Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Area ofa Rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Random Number Generator . . . . . . . . 75 Areas ofCommon Shapes . . . . . . . . . 46 Supercomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Areas ofSolid Objects . . . . . . . . . . 46 Understanding Weather . . . . . . . . . . 77 Buying by Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Car Radiators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Cloud and Ice Area and Global Warming . . . . 47 Calculus Drug Dosing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Applications ofDerivatives . . . . . . . . . 86 Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Solar Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Surveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Fundamental Theorem ofCalculus . . . . . . 85 Units ofArea . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Integrals,Applications . . . . . . . . . . 91 Average Maxima and Minima . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Arithmetic Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 The “Average”Family . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Calendars Average Lifespan . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Gregorian Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Averaging for Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . 55 Islamic and Chinese Calendars. . . . . . . . 99 Batting Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Leap Year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Evolution in Action . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Geometric Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Grades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Cartography How Many Galaxies? . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Insurance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . .103 Mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 GIS-Based Site Selection. . . . . . . . . .105 Median . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 GPS Navigation. . . . . . . . . . . . .105 Space Shuttle Safety . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Map Projection. . . . . . . . . . . . .100 Student Loan Consolidation . . . . . . . . 56 Natural Resources Evaluation and Protection . . .105 Weighted Averages in Business. . . . . . . . 54 Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 Weighted Averages in Grading . . . . . . . . 54 Topographic Maps. . . . . . . . . . . .104 viii R E A L - L I F E M A T H Entries (With Areas of Discussion) Longitude and John Harrison . . . . . . . .135 Charts Modern Navigation and GPS . . . . . . . .135 Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109 Paper Maps ofthe World . . . . . . . . .134 Basic Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . .133 Choosing the Right Type ofChart For the Data . .112 Radar Systems and Polar Coordinates . . . . .136 Clustered Column Charts . . . . . . . . .110 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132 Column and Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . .109 Line Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Decimals Pie Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110 Stacked Column Charts . . . . . . . . . .110 Grade Point Average Calculations. . . . . . .139 Using the Computer to Create Charts . . . . .112 Measurement Systems . . . . . . . . . .139 X-Y Scatter Graphs . . . . . . . . . . .109 Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Computers and Mathematics Demographics Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115 Census . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142 Binary System . . . . . . . . . . . . .114 Election Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .141 Bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Geographic Information System Technology . . .143 Bytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116 Compression. . . . . . . . . . . . . .118 Data Transmission. . . . . . . . . . . .119 Discrete Mathematics Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120 IP Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117 Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . .145 Pixels,Screen Size,and Resolution . . . . . .117 Boolean Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . .145 Subnet Mask. . . . . . . . . . . . . .118 Combinatorial Chemistry . . . . . . . . .147 Text Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116 Combinatorics . . . . . . . . . . . . .145 Computer Design . . . . . . . . . . . .146 Counting Jaguars Using Probability Theory . . .147 Conversions Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . .146 Finding New Drugs with Graph Theory . . . .147 Absolute Systems . . . . . . . . . . . .127 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146 Arbitrary Systems . . . . . . . . . . . .128 Logic,Sets,and Functions . . . . . . . . .144 Cooking or Baking Temperatures . . . . . . .127 Looking Inside the Body With Matrices. . . . .147 Derived Units . . . . . . . . . . . . .124 Matrix Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . .146 English System . . . . . . . . . . . . .123 Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . .145 International System ofUnits (SI) . . . . . .123 Probability Theory. . . . . . . . . . . .145 Metric Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . .123 Searching the Web. . . . . . . . . . . .146 Units Based On Physical or “Natural” Shopping Online and Prime Numbers . . . . .147 Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . .124 Weather Forecasting . . . . . . . . . . .126 Division Coordinate Systems Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152 Division and Comparison . . . . . . . . .151 3-D Systems On Ordinance Survey Maps . . . .136 Division and Distribution . . . . . . . . .150 Cartesian Coordinate Plane. . . . . . . . .132 Division,Other Uses . . . . . . . . . . .153 Changing Between Coordinate Systems . . . . .132 Practical Uses ofDivision For Students . . . . .153 Choosing the Best Coordinate System . . . . .132 Commercial Aviation . . . . . . . . . . .135 Coordinate Systems Used in Board Games . . . .134 Domain and Range Coordinate Systems Used for Computer Animation . . . . . . . . . . . . .134 Astronomers . . . . . . . . . . . . .157 Dimensions ofa Coordinate System . . . . . .131 Calculating Odds and Outcomes . . . . . . .157 ix R E A L - L I F E M A T H

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