Radioactive waste management and contaminated site clean-up: Processes, technologies and international experience

917 Pages·2013·37.469 MB·English

by  William E. Lee, Michael I. Ojovan, Carol M. Jantzen

Radioactive waste management

and contaminated site clean-up

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
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© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy: Number 48
Radioactive waste

management and
contaminated site
clean-up

Processes, technologies and

international experience

Edited by

William E. Lee , Michael I. Ojovan

and Carol M. Jantzen
Oxford Cambridge Philadelphia New Delhi
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
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First published 2013, Woodhead Publishing Limited
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© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
Contents
Contributor contact details xvii
Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy xxiii
Foreword xxix
Preface xxxi
Part I Background and principles of radioactive waste
(RAW) management 1
1 Fundamentals of radioactive waste (RAW): science,
sources, classifi cation and management strategies 3
W. E. Lee, Imperial College London, UK and
M. I. Ojovan, University of Sheffi eld, UK
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Controlled and uncontrolled wastes 4
1.3 Radioactive waste (RAW) classifi cation 8
1.4 Sources of waste 12
1.5 Managing controlled wastes 23
1.6 Strategies for managing uncontrolled releases and
contaminated site clean-up 45
1.7 Sources of further information 46
1.8 References 47
2 Radioactive waste (RAW) categories,
characterization and processing route selection 50
R. Burcl, Freelance consultant (formerly of IAEA
and EC-JRC Institute for Energy and Transport),
Slovak Republic
2.1 Introduction 50
2.2 Basic categories of radioactive waste (RAW) 51
2.3 RAW characterization and control 57
2.4 RAW processing route selection 62
v
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
vi Contents
2.5 Sources of further information 71
2.6 References 71
3 International safety standards for radioactive waste
(RAW) management and remediation of
contaminated sites 73
P. Metcalf, Consultant, formerly with the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Austria, now with
BBM Consulting e.U., Austria and B. Batandjieva,
Consultant, formerly with the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA), Austria
3.1 Introduction 73
3.2 International, regional and national organisations involved 80
3.3 International standards for radiological safety and
environmental protection 83
3.4 Radioactive waste (RAW) management policies,
regulations and standards 102
3.5 RAW packaging and transportation practice 108
3.6 Conclusion 109
3.7 References 110
4 Technical solutions for the management of
radioactive waste (RAW): overview and methods
of selection 115
A. Bychkov, Z. Drace and M. I. Ojovan, International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Austria
4.1 Introduction 115
4.2 Waste routing, classifi cation and categorization 116
4.3 Waste management steps 118
4.4 Technical options for waste management 119
4.5 Methodologies for technology selection 137
4.6 Conclusion 142
4.7 References 142
5 Irradiated nuclear fuel management: resource
versus waste 145
K. L. Nash, Washington State University, USA and
G. J. Lumetta and J. D. Vienna, Pacifi c Northwest
National Laboratory, USA
5.1 Introduction 145
5.2 Temporary storage 146
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
Contents vii
5.3 Fuel cycle options 147
5.4 Managing wastes from fuel recycling 157
5.5 Conclusion 166
5.6 Sources of further information 166
5.7 References 166
6 Radioactive waste (RAW) conditioning,
immobilization, and encapsulation processes
and technologies: overview and advances 171
C. M. Jantzen, Savannah River National Laboratory,
USA, W. E. Lee, Imperial College London, UK
and M. I. Ojovan, University of Sheffi eld, UK
6.1 Introduction 171
6.2 Waste form defi nitions 175
6.3 Types of immobilization processes and pre-processes 177
6.4 Immobilization processes and technologies 185
6.5 Waste forms, waste packages, and the geological
environment 232
6.6 Recent advances in waste form processing 234
6.7 Radiation damage in glasses and ceramics 235
6.8 Leach testing and its role in the waste acceptance
process 236
6.9 Sources of further information 243
6.10 Acknowledgements 245
6.11 References 246
7 Assessing and modelling the performance of
nuclear waste and associated packages for
long-term management 273
T. M. Ahn, US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, USA
7.1 Introduction 273
7.2 Background 274
7.3 Corrosion of relevant metals and alloys in mild and
near-neutral pH environments 276
7.4 Stress corrosion and hydrogen-induced cracking of
carbon steel and stainless steel 281
7.5 Spent nuclear fuel (SNF) degradation 286
7.6 Cladding performance 291
7.7 Summary 296
7.8 References 297
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013
viii Contents
8 Remediation of radioactively contaminated sites
and management of the resulting waste 301
M. Laraia, formerly of the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA), Austria
8.1 Introduction: defi nition and extent of the problem 301
8.2 Planning and management of environmental
remediation (ER) 303
8.3 Waste from contaminated areas: characteristics and volume 314
8.4 Decontamination methodologies and techniques 316
8.5 Waste transportation 318
8.6 Waste disposal 319
8.7 Future trends 320
8.8 Conclusion 323
8.9 Sources of further information 324
8.10 References 325
9 Safety and risk assessment of radioactive waste
(RAW) and contaminated sites 327
Y. V. Puzanov, SUE SIA ‘Radon’, Russia
9.1 Introduction 327
9.2 Deterministic and probabilistic analysis methods 329
9.3 Safety and risk assessment 330
9.4 Application to the case of radionuclide escape from a
near-surface disposal facility 333
9.5 Correlation of emergency accident levels with
probabilities of occurrence: implications for the safe
operation of facilities 338
9.6 Sources of further information 339
9.7 References 341
Part II Current international situation 343
10 Russia: experience of radioactive waste (RAW)
management and contaminated site clean-up 345
A. I. Sobolev and S. N. Brykin, RosRAO, Russia
and O. A. Gorbunova, Radon, Russia
10.1 Introduction 345
10.2 Special features of radioactive waste (RAW)
accumulation in the USSR 346
10.3 Long-term RAW isolation strategy 353
10.4 A new type of repository: the adoption of the
controlled prolonged storage concept 363
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Contents ix
10.5 Survey of modern RAW management technologies 363
10.6 The state system for the accounting and control of
RAW and radioactive materials (RAM) 371
10.7 Conclusion 382
10.8 References 382
11 Ukraine: experience of radioactive waste (RAW)
management and contaminated site clean-up 386
V. Shestopalov and I. Shybetskyi, Radioenvironmental
Centre of National Academy of Sciences of
Ukraine, Ukraine
11.1 Introduction 386
11.2 Sources, types and classifi cation of wastes 387
11.3 Radioactive waste (RAW) management practice 395
11.4 Chernobyl accident 400
11.5 Problems and lessons learned 409
11.6 Future trends 411
11.7 Conclusion 412
11.8 Sources of further information 413
11.9 References 414
12 Czech Republic, Slovak Republic and Poland:
experience of radioactive waste (RAW)
management and contaminated site clean-up 415
A. Vokál, Radioactive Waste Repository Authority,
Czech Republic and P. Stoch, Institute of Atomic
Energy, Poland
12.1 Introduction 415
12.2 Sources, types and classifi cation of wastes 417
12.3 Radioactive waste (RAW) management strategies:
history and developments 428
12.4 Contaminated site clean-up experience 433
12.5 Problematic cases and lessons learned 434
12.6 Future trends 435
12.7 Sources of further information 435
12.8 References 436
13 Nordic countries: experience of radioactive waste
(RAW) management and contaminated site clean-up 438
L. Werme, Consultant, USA
13.1 Introduction 438
13.2 Sources, types and classifi cation of wastes 442
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013