Radiation Protection and Dosimetry

389 Pages·2007·17.75 MB·English

by  Michael G. Stabin (eds.)

RADIATION PROTECTION
AND DOSIMETRY
Michael G. Stabin
Radiation Protection
and Dosimetry
An Introduction to Health Physics
123
MichaelG.Stabin
DepartmentofRadiologyandRadiologicalSciences
VanderbiltUniversity
116121stAvenueSouth
Nashville,TN37232-2675
Email,personal:[email protected]
ISBN978-0-387-49982-6 e-ISBN978-0-387-49983-3
LibraryofCongressControlNumber2007930708
(cid:1)c 2007SpringerScience+BusinessMedia,LLC
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without
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Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or
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adaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafter
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Printedonacid-freepaper.
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To the four strongest and most beautiful people that I know: Laura, Daniel,
Mark,andJuliaStabin.
ToDr.CharlesE.Roessler,whotaughtmenotonlyhealthphysics,butthelove
ofhealthphysics,whichIwillcarrywithmealways.
Table of Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Chapter 1. IntroductiontoHealthPhysics 1
1.1 DefinitionofHealthPhysics 1
1.2 OverviewoftheRoleofHealthPhysics 1
1.3 EmploymentofHealthPhysicists 2
1.4 EducationalBackground 2
1.5 InteractionofHealthPhysicistswithOtherDisciplines 3
1.6 ThisTextanditsRelationtoaTrainingProgram 4
Chapter 2. ScientificFundamentals 5
2.1 QuantitiesandUnitsinScienceandEngineering 5
2.2 BackgroundInformation 6
2.3 NatureofMatter—Molecules,Atoms,Quarks 7
2.4 ExcitationandIonization 10
2.5 RefinementstotheBohrAtom 11
2.6 CharacteristicX-rays 12
2.7 BindingEnergy 13
2.8 TheChartoftheNuclides 14
2.9 SomeElementsofQuantumTheory 15
2.9.1 ElectromagneticRadiation 15
2.9.2 Wave/ParticleDualityofNature 17
2.9.3 TheHeisenbergUncertaintyPrinciple 17
Chapter 3. RadioactiveAtoms—NatureandBehavior 18
3.1 AlphaEmission 21
3.2 PositronEmission 23
3.3 OrbitalElectronCapture 25
3.4 Beta(Minus)Emission 26
3.5 GammaRayEmission 27
3.6 InternalConversionElectrons 28
3.7 AugerElectrons 28
3.8 SummaryandExamples 28
3.9 TransformationKinetics 30
3.10 AverageLife(MeanLife) 34
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viii TableofContents
3.11 SpecificActivity 34
3.12 SeriesDecay 35
3.13 TimeofMaximumProgenyActivity 38
3.14 TracingRadioactiveDecayontheChartoftheNuclides 40
Chapter 4. InteractionofRadiationwithMatter 43
4.1 ChargedParticleInteractionMechanisms 46
4.2 AlphaParticleInteractions 46
4.3 BetaParticleInteractions 49
4.4 SpecificIonization 52
4.5 MassStoppingPower 53
4.6 LinearEnergyTransfer(LET) 54
4.7 BremsstrahlungRadiation 54
4.8 GammaRayInteractions 55
4.9 Mechanisms 57
4.9.1 PhotoelectricEffect 58
4.9.2 ComptonEffect 58
4.9.3 PairProduction 60
4.9.4 Photodisintegration 60
4.10 PhotonAttenuationandAbsorptionCoefficients 61
4.11 NeutronInteractions 61
4.11.1 Scattering 64
4.11.2 Absorption 64
Chapter 5. QuantitiesandUnitsinRadiationProtection 67
5.1 Exposure 69
5.2 AbsorbedDoseandEquivalentDose 69
5.3 Radioactivity 73
5.4 ParticleandEnergyFieldUnits 74
Chapter 6. BiologicalEffectsofRadiation 75
6.1 Introduction:Background 75
6.2 MechanismsofRadiationDamagetoBiologicalSystems 79
6.3 BiologicalEffectsinHumans 81
6.3.1 NonstochasticEffects 82
6.3.1.1 DeathfromWholeBodyExposure—TheAcute
RadiationSyndrome 84
6.3.1.1.1 HemopoeticSyndrome 85
6.3.1.1.2 Gastrointestinal(GI)Syndrome 86
6.3.1.1.3 CentralNervousSystem(CNS)
Syndrome 86
6.3.1.2 DamagetoSkin 87
6.3.1.3 Gonads 90
6.3.1.4 CataractFormation 91
6.3.2 StochasticEffects 92
6.3.2.1 Cancer 92
6.3.2.2 Leukemia 95
6.3.2.3 BoneCancer 95
6.3.2.4 LungCancer 95
6.3.2.5 ThyroidCancer 97
TableofContents ix
6.3.2.6 HereditaryEffects 98
6.3.2.7 MathematicalModelsofCancerRisk 98
6.4 CellSurvivalStudies 100
6.5 RelativeBiologicalEffectiveness 102
Chapter 7. TheBasisforRegulationofRadiationExposure 105
7.1 Period1:1895–1913 105
7.2 Period2:1913–1922 105
7.3 Period3:1922–1928 106
7.4 Period4:1928–1934 106
7.5 Period5:1934–1941 107
7.6 Period6:1941–1946 107
7.7 Period7:1946–1953 108
7.8 Period8:1953–1959 109
7.9 Period9:1960–1965 110
7.10 Period10:1966–Present 111
7.11 Period11:TheFuture 114
7.12 RadiationRegulations—AnAcronym-oniousHistory 115
7.12.1 Introduction 115
7.12.2 ScientificAdvisoryBodies 116
7.12.3 RegulatoryBodies 119
Chapter 8. HealthPhysicsInstrumentation 132
8.1 ThermalReactions 132
8.2 ChemicalReactions 133
8.3 ElectricalDevices 134
8.3.1 GasFilledDetectors 134
8.3.2 LightProduction:ScintillationDetectors 145
8.3.3 SemiconductorDetectors 149
8.4 AlphaandGammaSpectroscopy/Spectrometry 151
8.5 PersonnelMonitoring 154
8.6 NeutronDetection 159
8.7 CalibrationConsiderations 162
8.7.1 Photons 163
8.7.2 Electrons/Beta 163
8.7.3 Alpha 163
8.7.4 Neutrons 164
8.8 CountingStatistics 164
8.8.1 GaussianDistribution 165
8.8.2 PoissonDistribution 168
8.8.3 PropagationofErrors 170
8.8.4 MeanValueofMultipleIndependentCounts 172
8.8.5 MinimumDetectableActivity 173
8.8.6 OptimizationofLimitedCountingTime 176
Chapter 9. ExternalDoseAssessment 178
9.1 DosefromDiscretePhotonSources 179
9.2 SpecificGammaRayEmissionFactor 180
9.2.1 PointSource 180
9.2.2 LineSource 182
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9.2.3 PlaneSource 183
9.2.4 VolumeSource 184
9.3 DosefromDiscreteElectronSources 186
9.4 HotParticles 188
9.5 DosefromDiscreteNeutronSources 189
9.6 DosefromExtendedSources 191
9.7 TritiumandNobleGases 196
9.8 ComputerModelinginExternalDoseAssessment 198
9.9 LiteratureResourcesinExternalDoseAssessment 202
Chapter 10. InternalDoseAssessment 205
10.1 BasicConceptsinInternalDoseCalculations 205
10.2 EffectiveHalf-Time 207
10.3 DosimetrySystems 209
10.3.1 Marinelli–QuimbyMethod 210
10.3.2 InternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection 210
10.3.3 MedicalInternalRadiationDose(MIRD)System 212
10.3.4 RADAR 213
10.4 InternalDoseCalculationsforRadiationWorkers 213
10.5 InternalDoseCalculationsforNuclearMedicinePatients 228
Chapter 11. RadiationProtectionPractice/Evaluation 244
11.1 Introduction 244
11.2 ExternalProtectionPrinciples 246
11.3 ShieldingofPhotonSources 247
11.4 GradedorLaminatedShielding 250
11.5 ShieldingofX-RaySources 251
11.6 ShieldingofDiscreteElectronSources 257
11.7 ShieldingofNeutronSources 261
11.8 PerformingRadiationSurveys 265
11.9 PrinciplesofOptimization 266
11.10 ProtectionofWorkersfromInternalContamination 269
11.11 AirSamplingCalculations 275
11.12 MethodsforGatheringBioassayData 281
11.12.1 In-VivoCounting 282
11.12.2 In-vitroMeasurements 285
11.12.3 InterpretationofBioassayData 285
11.13 CriticalityandCriticalityControl 291
Chapter 12. EnvironmentalMonitoringforRadiation 309
12.1 TypesofEnvironmentalAssessmentPrograms 310
12.2 TypesofFacilitiesMonitored 311
12.3 TypesofSamplesandSamplingStrategies 311
12.3.1 DirectGammaExposureReadings 313
12.3.2 AirborneConcentrationsofRadionuclides 315
12.4 Long-TermOff-SiteMonitoring 316
12.4.1 ConcentrationsofRadionuclidesinWater 318
12.4.2 ConcentrationsofRadionuclidesinSoilorSediment 320
12.4.3 ConcentrationsofRadionuclidesinBiological
Species(Biota) 322
12.5 GeneralSamplingStrategiesandTechniques 323
TableofContents xi
12.6 SampleManagement 326
12.7 Instrumentation 329
12.8 EvaluationoftheData 330
12.9 RadioactiveWasteManagement 336
12.9.1 TheNuclearFuelCycle 336
12.9.2 GeneralWasteTypes 340
12.10 SiteEvaluation 343
Chapter 13. NonionizingRadiation 347
13.1 UltravioletRadiation 347
13.2 Lasers 352
13.3 RadiofrequencyRadiation,andMicrowaveSources 362
13.4 EMF 367
13.5 MagneticResonanceImaging(MRI) 368
Index 373
Preface
This text is meant to serve as the basis for a two-course series in the study
ofradiationprotection(a.k.a.“healthphysics”).Thefirstcoursewouldbean
introduction to and fast-paced overview of the subject. For some, this is the
only course in radiation protection that they will take, and thus all material
mustbecoveredinafairlysuperficialandrapidfashion.Thesecondcourseis
amorein-depthandappliedstudyofradiationprotection,bringingincurrent
materialsfromtheliterature,adetailedstudyofregulations,practicewithreal-
worlddoseandshieldingcalculations,andperhapsapplicationinasemester-
long student project assigned by the instructor. Several chapters include an
additionalsectionofsuggestedreadingsandotherresourcesthatcanbeused
bytheinstructortobuildsuchdetailedinvestigationsinasecondcourseofthis
nature.Inthefirstcourse,thechaptermaybebasicallystudied,withreference
to the idea that a much richer literature base exists than can be covered in a
broadoverview ofradiationprotection.Throughexplorationofthisliterature
base, and other similar materials that the instructor may be aware of that are
not specifically cited, this second, more in-depth course may be developed.
A routine part of any good health physics program is a complete course in
radiationdetectionandmeasurement.Mybriefoverviewchapterherecannot
provide the depth needed for this subject. Most instructors are familiar with
theexcellentbookbyGlennKnollonthesubject,whichIheartilyrecommend
asthebasisforsuchafullcourse.
Most chapters have some exercises for the student. I have provided the
problem and the answer and worked-out solution in all cases. It is not advis-
able that the students be provided with the worked-out solutions, as this will
certainlyencouragelazinessofapproachwithsomestudents.Theseareforthe
instructor’s use; students should be given the problems and correct answers,
to guide their work, and then shown individual solutions as needed toclarify
difficult areas. All of the problem questions and solutions are available from
theRADARwebsite(www.doseinfo-radar.com);itishopedthattheywillbe
ofvaluetotheinstructor.Anyerrorsfoundinthetextbookorproblemsolutions
shouldnaturallybeforwardedtotheauthor.
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