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Radar technology encyclopedia PDF

520 Pages·1997·10.06 MB·English
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Radar Technology Encyclopedia (Electronic Edition) David K. Barton Sergey A. Leonov Editors Artech House Boston London •. iv Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Barton, David K. Radar technology encyclopedia / David K. Barton and Sergey A. Leonov, editors Includes bibliographical rteferences and index ISBN 0-89006-893-3 1. Radar—Encyclopedias. I. Barton, David Knox, 1927-. II. Leonov, S. A. (Sergey Alexandovich). TK6574.R34 1997 621.3848’03—dc21 96-52026 CIP British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Radar technology encyclopedia 1 Radar- encyclopedias I. Barton, David K. (David Knox) II. Leonov, Sergey A. ISBN 0-89006-893-3 © 1998 ARTECH HOUSE, INC. 685 Canton Street Norwood, MA 02062 All rights reserved. Produced in United States of America. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appro- priately capitalized. Artech House cannot attest to the accuracy of this information. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark. International Standard Book Number: 0-89006-893-3 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96-52026 v Table of Contents Contributors ix carcinotron 72 display, radar 139 About the Authors ix cathode-ray tube 72 distribution 146 Introduction xi cell, radar (resolution) 73 diversity 149 Use of Hypertext Links xii centroiding 73 divider 149 cepstrum 74 doppler effect 149 A chaff 74 drive 151 channel 74 duct, ducting 151 absorber, radar 1 chart 75 duplexer 151 absorption 5 chirp 76 duty factor 152 accuracy 5 choke, microwave 76 dynamic range 153 acquisition 7 circuit 76 adapter, microwave 8 circulator 77 E algorithm 8 clipping 78 aliasing 10 eclipsing 153 clutter 78 altimeter, radar 10 coast 88 echo, radar 154 ambiguity 11 effective echoing area 154 coaxitron 88 ambiguity function 12 code, coding 88 electromagnetic compatibility 154 amplifier, microwave 15 coherence 90 (EMC) amplitron 22 conductance 91 electronic counter- counter mea- 154 amplitude 22 confusion area 91 sures ECCM) analyzer 22 connector, microwave 91 electronic countermeasures 156 anechoic chamber 22 conopulse 91 (ECM) angel (echo) 23 constant false alarm rate 91 angle 23 electronic intelligence 161 contrast, radar 93 electronic (warfare) support mea- 162 antenna 25 control 93 aperture 40 sures (ESM) conversion, converter 94 approximation 41 convolution 96 electronic warfare 162 array (antenna) 42 equalization 163 coordinates, radar 96 astronomy, radar 51 correlation function 97 equivalence principle 163 atmosphere 51 error, measurement 164 correlator 98 atmospherics 55 Cotton-Mouton effect 98 exciter 172 attenuation 55 coupler, directional 99 attenuator 58 coverage, radar 100 F autocorrelator 59 crossed-field amplifier 101 fading 173 autodyne 59 crowbar 103 failure 173 availability 59 false alarm 173 axis 60 D fantastron 174 Faraday 175 B data, radar 104 feed, antenna 175 deception, radar 105 backscatter, backscattering 60 feedback 180 decibel 105 backward-wave tube 60 decoder 106 feeder [feed line] 180 band 61 fence 180 decorrelation 106 bandwidth 61 decoy, radar 106 ferrite 181 bang, main 62 field, electromagnetic 181 defruiter 106 baseband 62 delay 107 filter, filtering 182 baseline 62 fluctuation 197 delay line 107 beam, antenna 62 delta [Dirac] function 111 follower 197 bel 64 frequency 197 dematron 111 bimatron 64 demodulation 111 Friis transmission formula 203 bitermitron 64 “fruit” 203 demultiplexing 111 blanking, blanker 64 depolarization 111 function, random 203 blinking 64 fuze, radar 204 depth of focus 112 blip 65 designation 112 blocking 65 detectability factor 112 G blooming 65 detection [of radar targets] 113 gain 204 Boltzmann’s constant 65 detector [demodulation, demodu- 125 garble 205 boresighting 65 lators[ gate, gating 205 Bragg 65 device, microwave 129 generator 206 bridge, microwave 65 diagram 132 ghost 207 burnthrough 67 Dicke fix 132 glint 207 buoy, radar 67 dielectric 133 goniometer 207 diffraction 133 “grass” 207 C diode, microwave 133 guidance, radar 207 calibration 67 diplex (mode) 137 gull 208 camouflage 68 dipole 137 Gunn effect 208 cancellation, canceler 68 direction finder, direction finding 137 gyrotron 208 capture effect 72 discrimination, discriminator 138 vi refractivity 400 H N relay, radar 400 reliability, radar 400 height finder 209 navigation, radio 284 repair 400 heterodyning 210 navigator, doppler 285 resistance 401 hit 210 network 286 resolution 401 hole, radar 210 noise 286 resonator, microwave 404 hologram, holography, radar 210 nomenclature, radar 288 response 408 homing, radar 213 notcher 289 return loss 408 horizon, radar 213 nuclear effects 289 ring 408 Huygens’ source 213 nulling 290 hybrid (junction), microwave 213 Nyquist ‘ 290 S O I operator, radar 290 sample, sampling 408 scan, scanning 409 oscillation 290 illuminator 214 oscillator, microwave 291 scanner, antenna 411 image, imaging, radar 214 scatterer, scattering 414 impedance 216 scatterometer 415 inductance 217 P sea effect 416 information measure 217 parametric echo effect 296 searchlighting 416 integrated circuit 217 pattern, antenna 296 seeker, radar 416 integration, integrator 219 performance, radar 299 selectivity 418 intelligence, radar 223 permeability 299 sensitivity 418 interference 223 permittivity 300 sequence 418 interferometer, radar 223 phase 300 service, radar 419 interpolation 223 phase shifter 300 sextant, radar 420 interrogation, interrogator 224 phasor 304 shadow, radar 420 intrusion 224 platform 304 shift keying 420 ionosphere 224 platinotron 304 sidelobe 420 iris, matching 225 plumbing 304 sight, radar 421 Poincaré sphere 304 signal, radar 421 J polarization 304 signal processing, signal proces- 424 jaff 225 polarizer 307 sor polyplexer 307 silence, radar 425 jammer, jamming 225 jitter 231 potential, radar 307 skiatron 425 power 307 slant-range effect 425 joint, microwave 232 Josephson effect 232 Poynting(’s) vector 310 slow-wave structure 425 precision 310 smoothing, data 426 preclassification 310 speckle 426 K principle 310 spectrometer, spectroscopy, radar 426 Kabanov effect 232 propagation, wave 310 spectrum 426 klystron 232 pulse 313 speed, blind 427 pulse compression 315 spoofing 427 L pulse repetition frquency (PRF) 318 squitter 427 pulser 319 stabilitron 427 lens 234 stability 427 likelihood 237 Q stealth 428 limiter 238 step function 428 line 240 Q(-factor) 320 strobe 428 load 240 Q-function 320 subsystem, radar 428 lobe 240 Quantization 320 local oscillator (LO) 241 superposition 428 loss, in radar 243 R suppression 429 (running) rabbits 320 surveillance, radar 429 M radar 320 switch, switching 429 magnetron 258 radar applications and types 321 synchronizer 429 map 262 radar cross section 361 synthesizer 429 mapping 262 radargrammetry 370 mark, calibration 263 radiation 371 T matrix 263 radiator, radiating elements, of 372 tapering 430 measurement, radar 264 antenna target, radar 430 meteorology, radar 265 radiometer, radiometry, micro- 373 target recognition and identifica- 432 microphone effect 266 wave missile, antiradiation 266 radome 374 tion mixer 266 railing 376 temperature, noise 436 model 269 range 376 test, testing, radar 438 modulation 269 range equation 378 tetrode 439 modulator 271 range finder, ranging, radar 385 threshold 439 monopinch 274 receiver, reception, radar 387 throughput capability 439 monopulse 275 reciprocity 393 thyristor 440 moving target detector 278 reflection 393 time 440 moving target indication 279 reflectivity 395 tomography, microwave 441 multiport, microwave 283 reflectometer 396 track, trackers, tracking 441 multivibrator 283 reflector 396 tradeoff 445 trainer, radar 446 vii transceiver 446 waveform, radar 472 transducer 446 U waveguide 478 transfer function 446 uncertainty 465 weighting 483 transform 446 transformer, microwave 449 V X transistor, microwave 450 varactor 466 transmission line, microwave 452 transmissivity 456 varicap 466 Y vaxitron 466 transmitter, radar 456 transponder 459 vegetation factor 466 Z velocity 466 traveling-wave tube (TWT) 460 zone, radar 484 trigatron 462 velodyne 466 video 466 trigger (flip-flop) circuit 462 Alphabetical Bibliography 485 triode, microwave 462 visibility 467 Bibliography by Subject 503 troposphere 462 W Radar Abbreviations and Acro- 507 tube, microwave 463 nyms twystron 465 wave, electromagnetic 468 ix CONTRIBUTORS Barton, David K., Vice President, ANRO Engineering (U.S.A.), contributed as editor and author. Barton, William F., Consulting Engineer, PictureTel (U.S.A.), contributed as translator. Hamilton, Paul C., Vice President, ANRO Engineering (U.S.A.), contributed as author. Leonov, Alexander I., Professor, Moscow Institute of Technology (Russia), contributed as author. Leonov, Sergey A., Senior Engineer, Raytheon Canada Limited (Canada), contributed as editor, author, and translator. Michelson, Max, Senior Research Scientist, ANRO Engineering (U.S.A.), contributed as translator. Morozov, Illya A., Senior Research Scientist, Aerospace Research Institute (Russia), contributed as author. ABOUT THE AUTHORS Mr. David K. Barton is a well-known radar expert, lecturer, coauthor (with K. I. Fomichev) of Monopulse Radar (Soviet- and author of several fundamental radar books published in skoe Radio, 1970, 1984; trans. Artech House 1986), and the United States, United Kingdom, Russia, China, and many coauthor and editor of Modeling in Radar (Sovietskoe Radio, other countries. Mr. Barton has had a long career in radar, 1979) and Radar Test (Radio i Svyaz, 1990). He holds the including service with the U.S. Army Signal Corp., RCA, academic rank of professor and “All-Russian Honorable” title Raytheon, and currently as Vice President for Engineering in the field of science and engineering. His contribution to the with ANRO Engineering, Inc. He is an author of Radar Sys- Encyclopedia is identified by the initials AIL following the tems Analysis (Prentice-Hall, 1964; Artech House, 1976) article. Modern Radar System Analysis (Artech House, 1988), coau- thor (with H. R. Ward) of Handbook of Radar Measurement Dr. Sergey A. Leonov is known in both Russia and the West (Prentice-Hall, 1969; Artech House, 1984), with W. F. Barton as a bilingual radar expert. He started his radar career work- of Modern Radar System Analysis Software (Artech House, ing for Russian space programs; later he designed and tested 1993), with C. E. Cook and P. C. Hamilton of Radar Evalua- shipborne and spaceborne radars, headed a research labora- tion Handbook (Artech House, 1991), and editor of Radars tory in Moscow Aerospace Institute, and currently is with (Artech House, 1975). Mr. Barton is an editor of Artech Raytheon Canada Limited. He is an author of Air Defense House Radar Library, and a Fellow of the IEEE. His contribu- Radars (Voenizdat, 1988), coauthor (with A. I. Leonov) of tion to the Encyclopedia is identified by the initials DKB fol- Radar Test (Radio i Svyaz, 1990), and (with W. F. Barton) of lowing the article. the Russian-English and English-Russian Dictionary of Radar and Electronics (Artech House, 1993). He holds the Dr. Paul C. Hamilton is a leading expert on radar and sys- academic rank of associate professor, “All-Russian Honor- tems design. He has much experience having served with the able” title in the field of science and engineering, and a Senior U.S. Air Force, Hughes Aviation Co., and Raytheon and now Member of IEEE. His contribution to the Encyclopedia is as Vice President for Radar Studies with ANRO Engineering, identified by the initials SAL following the article. Inc. He is coauthor (with D. K. Barton and C. E. Cook) of the Radar Evaluation Handbook (Artech House, 1991). His con- Dr. Ilya A. Morozov is a leading Russian expert on radar and tribution to the Encyclopedia is identified by the initials PCH microwave technology. He has participated in a series of pro- following the article. grams involving design and test of Russian state-of-the-art phased-array radars, and currently is a Senior Research Scien- Dr. Alexander I. Leonov is well known in Russia as a scien- tist at the Moscow Aerospace Institute. Dr. Morozov is a tist and engineer in the field of radar. For about 25 years he coauthor of a book Ships of National Control (Moskovskiy was a senior member of teams that designed and tested state- Litsey, 1991), and Sophisticated Radio Systems Performance of-the-art radars for Soviet ABM programs, and now he is a Estimation (Mashinostroenie, 1993). His contribution to the professor at the Moscow Institute of Technology. He is an Encyclopedia is identified by the initials IAM following the author of Radar in Anti-Missile Defense (Voenizdat, 1967), article. xi INTRODUCTION The Radar Technology Encyclopedia is a joint product of and so forth. leading United States and Russian radar experts with decades of experience on design, development, and test of state-of- The subarticles are alphabetized without regard to the-art radar systems and technology. The Encyclopedia cov- whether the qualifying adjective precedes or follows the main ers the entire field of radar fundamentals, design, engineering, word: broadband antenna precedes antenna control. systems, subsystems, and major components. It contains Within each article and subarticle, if applicable, the about 5000 entries, each giving the depicted term definition, cross-reference to another subarticle is indicated in lower- and, if applicable, the standard notation, brief description, case bold, e.g.: evaluation formulas, relevant block diagrams, performance summary, and a reference to the literature in which the more “The RCS of this type of clutter is calculated using the detailed information is available. The purpose is to provide, volume of the clutter cell V and the volume reflectiv- c in a single volume, the reference material for researchers and ity h (see volume clutter). “ v engineers in radar and related disciplines, representing the That subarticle is found alphabetically within the same top- most modern information available in both the former Soviet level article, e.g., CLUTTER. If the cross-reference refers to Union and in the West. It includes an extensive bibliography another top-level article, then the name of this article is given of sources from both regions. This bibliography covers practi- in capital letters. For example, a reader is referred to an article cally all monographs and textbooks in radar and related sub- NOISE, and will find that article alphabetically under N. jects published after World War II in English (in the U.S.A. and England) and Russian (in the former Soviet Union) lan- Parentheses in the name of an article or subarticle mean guages that covers the overwhelming majority of the world- that the word is optional. For example, phased array wide library of radar books. (antenna) means that the term is used both as phased array or phased array antenna. Square brackets mean that the The Encyclopedia format is alphabetical by subject. It word in the brackets can be used instead of the previous one. consists of top-level articles, which are identified with bold For example, bed of spikes [nails] ambiguity function capital letters (e.g., MAGNETRON), and, if applicable, are means that the term is used as bed of spikes ambiguity func- followed by subarticles, which are identified in lowercase tion or bed of nails ambiguity function. bold (e.g., rising-sun magnetron). The top-level articles are arranged in the way so the key word (typically, a noun) deter- For definitions of terms, extensive use has been made of mines its alphabetical position (e.g., microwave antenna is IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics cited as ANTENNA, microwave, radar targets as TARGET, Terms and IEEE Standard Radar Definitions. The standard radar, data smoothing as SMOOTHING, data). Subarticles definitions reproduced from these dictionaries and other within a top-level article are given in a conventional word acknowledged sources are put into quotes. The Encyclopedia order typically used in literature and alphabetically arranged, does not contain separate articles with the description and for example: performance of concrete radar stations and facilities, because even brief description of the major radars developed through- AMPLIFIER, microwave out the world requires to provide additional volume as thick amplifier-attenuator as this one. This information is systematized in Jane’s Radar amplifier chain and Electronic Warfare Systems, updated and issued annually, aperiodic amplifier and the Encyclopedia does not duplicate this material. How- backward-wave tube amplifier ever, where applicable, extensive examples of modern radars balanced amplifier are provided. bandpass amplifier xii Each article and subarticle contains references, primarily listed in the Alphabetical Bibliography, and for the readers to textbooks, which are listed alphabetically by author in the interested in a full bibliography on a corresponding subject Alphabetical Bibliography at the end of Encyclopedia. The the Bibliography by Subject is provided. It contains a full bib- combination of the surname of the first author and a year of liography list of the identifiable radar and radar-related books edition identifies the cited book: published during the last 50 years and is arranged in 35 sec- Ref.: Skolnik (1980) tions by subject. Within each section the books are given in chronological order, and alphabetically by author within one refers to the book listed in the bibliography as: year. At the end of Encyclopedia is a list of the most common Skolnik, M. I., Introduction to Radar Systems, McGraw- radar abbreviations and acronyms. Hill, 1980; and the brief reference: The author of each article and subarticle is identified by the corresponding initials following the entry, when that entry Ref.: Barton (1969) exceeds a few lines of definition (see About the Authors). The identifies the book listed with both authors and two editions original generation of the list of entries, compiling of the Bib- or publishers: liography, and final editing of Encyclopedia material was Barton, D. K., and Ward, H. R., Handbook of Radar Mea- done by David K. Barton and Sergey A. Leonov. surement, Prentice-Hall, 1969; Artech House, 1984. In rare cases where there is no applicable textbook, reference David K. Barton and Sergey A. Leonov, is made to a professional journal article. Typically, each arti- Editors cle is followed by references to the major current books, as Use of Hypertext Links In this electronic edition of the Radar Technology Ency- text. Clicking on any blue entry initiates an immediate trans- clopedia, hypertext links have been added to transfer rapidly fer to the related entry. The program keeps track of the history from one article to a related or referenced subject. The words of these transfers, and the reader can retrace steps by clicking or phrases from which links can be exercised appear in blue in either the right or left page margins. xiii ABSORBER, radar absorber, Dahlenbach 1 A conductivity of the deposition on the film. An example of a pattern deposited on a CA sheet in shown in Fig. A1. CA absorbers can be tuned, as with an RLC circuit, ABSORBER, radar. The term absorber refers to a radar- enabling the designer to improve the bandwidth of the multi- absorbing structure or material (RAS or RAM), the purpose sheet configuration. In general, CA absorber is a lossy ver- of which is to soak up incident energy and reduce the energy sion of a class of printed patterns known as frequency- reflected back to the radar. Its main objective is to achieve selective surfaces (FSS). SAL reduction in the radar cross section (RCS) of radar targets. Other applications are to suppress wall reflections in anechoic Ref.: Knott (1993) p. 326; Bhattacharyya (1991), pp. 215–217. chambers and reflections from nearby structures at fixed radar sites. Absorbers can be classified from the point of view of scattering phenomena as specular and nonspecular types, and from the point of view of their bandwidth as narrowband RAS and wideband RAS. The major representatives of nar- rowband RAS are the Salisbury screen and the Dahlenbach absorber. Wideband RAS are represented by m = e type r r absorbers, circuit analog absorbers, frequency-selective sur- faces, geometric transition absorbers, Jaumann absorbers, and graded absorbers. Some of these types can be combined to form hybrid absorbers with improved performance. All these types are specular absorbers designed to reduce specular reflections from metallic surfaces. Nonspecular absorbers are intended primarily for suppression of surface traveling-wave echoes. SAL Figure A1 Circuit analog absorbers (after Knott, 1993, Absorbers for anechoic chambers are applied to the internal Fig.8.18, p. 326). surfaces of an anechoic chamber to absorb the incident radio A Dahlenbach absorber (Fig. A2) consists of a thick homo- waves. The basic requirements are wideband performance geneous lossy layer backed by a metallic plate. It is a simple and low reflection coefficient. narrowband absorber that is flexible and can be applied to dif- Usually the absorber is a plastic foam frame with filler ferent kinds of curved surfaces. It is characteristic of single- that readily absorbs radio waves (microspheres of polysty- rene, teflon, etc.), the density of the material and the concen- e , m tration growing with depth. Radar-absorbing material is most convenient in the form of pyramids with an angle of 30(cid:176) to q 60(cid:176) at the apex, which assures multiple re-reflections that increase absorption. To reduce the reflection coefficient to - q 20 dB, the height of the pyramids must be 0.5l to 0.6l , but to reduce it to - 50 dB, a height of 7l to 10l is required. In this L case thinner structures are used, made, for example, from fer- rite absorbing materials. IAM Z = 0 Z = L Ref.: Finkel'shteyn (1983), p. 145; Knott, 1993, pp. 528–532. Chirosorb absorbing material is a novel RAM typically Figure A2 Dahlenbach absorber (after Bhattacharyya, 1991, fabricated by embedding randomly oriented identical chiral Fig.4.65, p. 211). microstructures (e.g., microhelices), in an isotropic host layer absorbers backed by metal plates that it is impossible to medium. In comparison with conventional RAMs, it pos- achieve zero reflection because the layer material must be sesses an excellent low-reflectivity property and may be prac- such that low reflection occurs on its front face, and using tically invisible to radar. SAL physically realizable materials it is impossible to force reflec- Ref.: Bhattacharyya (1991), p. 233. tion from both the front face and the metal backing to zero. The main objective in this case is to choose electrical proper- Circuit analog (CA) absorbers are sheets of low-loss mate- ties of the layer to make two reflections to cancel each other. rial on which specific conducting patterns have been depos- Reflectivity curves for dominantly electrical and magnetic ited. The patterns constitute resistance, inductance, and layer materials are shown in Figs. A3 and A4, respectively. capacitance. The deposited film can be represented by an The optimum layer thickness in the first case is near a quarter equivalent RLC circuit, parameters of which can be con- wavelength, in the second case it is near a half wavelength. trolled by the geometric configuration, film thickness, and SAL Ref.: Knott (1993), pp. 314–320; Bhattacharyya (1991), pp. 208–212.

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