Table Of Content

aa »» SScciieennccee aannddIIttss CCoonncceeppttuuaall FFoouunnddaattiioonnss OOuuaannttuumm -- :: DDiiaalloogguuee AAsseerriieess eeddiitteedd bbyy DDaavviidd LL.. HHuullll TThhee sshhaakkiinnggooff RReevvoolluuttiioonn MMaarraa BBeelllleerr TTHHEE UUNNIIVVEERRSSIITTYY OOFF GGHHIICCAAGGOO PPRREESSSS CChhiiccaaggoo&& LLoonnddoonn CCOONNTTEENNTTSS ee--FF TThhiinnkkiinngg aanndd ddiissccoouurrssee aarree tthheessaammee tthhiinngg.. ...... WWhhaatt wweeccaallll ii tthhiinnkkiinnggiiss pprreecciisseellyy tthhee iinnwwaarrdd ddiiaalloogguuee.. PPllaattoo TThhee rrooaaddss bbyy wwhhiicchh mmeennaarrrriivveeaatttthheeiirriinnssiigghhttss .. .. .. sseeeemm ttoo mmee aallmmoosstt aass wwoorrtthhyy ooffwwoonnddeerraass tthheessee mmaatttteerrss iinn tthheemmsseellvveess.. LLiissttooffIIlllluussttrraattiioonnss JJoohhaannnneess KKeepplleerr xxii PPrreeffaaccee aanndd AAcckknnoowwlleeddggmmeennttss xxiiiiii NNoovveellttyy aanndd DDooggmmaa DDiiaallooggiiccaallCCrreeaattiivviittyy 11..’’ RReevvoolluuttiioonnss aarree ttrruuee aass mmoovveemmeennttssaannddffaallsseeaass rreeggiimmeess.. RRhheettoorriiccaallSSttrraatteeggiieess 1100 MMaauurriiccee MMeerrlleeaauu--PPoonnttyy ;; PPAARRTTOONNEE DDIIAALLOOGGIICCAALLEEMMEERRGGEENNCCEE 22.. MMaattrriixxTThheeoorryyiinn FFlluuxx -- 1177 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn 1177 AARReevviissiioonnoofftthheeOOrriiggiinnssoofftthheeMMaattrriixxTThheeoorryy AA TT TThheeEEmmoottiioonnaallCCoonnffrroonnttaattiioonnbbeettwweeeenntthheeMMaattrriixx PPhhyyssiicciissttssaannddSScchhrrééddiinnggeerr 3300 || BBoorrnn’’ssPPrroobbaabbiilliissttiiccIInntteerrpprreettaattiioonn::AACCaasseeSSttuuddyy ““CCoonncceeppttssiinnFFlluuxx”” 3399 33;; QQuuaannttuumm PPhhiilloossoopphhyyiinnFFlluuxx 5511 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn BBLL PPoossiittiivviissmmiinnFFlluuxx 5522 IInnddeetteerrmmiinniissmmiinnFFlluuxx 5599 44.. TThhee DDiiaallooggiiccaall EEmmeerrggeenncceeooffHHeeiisseennbbeerrgg’’ss UUnncceerrttaaiinnttyyPPaappeerr 6655 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn 6655 DDiiaalloogguueewwiitthhSScchhrrééddiinnggeerr 6677 -- DDiiaalloogguueewwiitthhPPaauullii 7799 DDiiaalloogguueewwiitthhDDiirraacc 8855 DDiiaalloogguueewwiitthhJJoorrddaann 9911 DDiiaalloogguueesswwiitthh““LLeesssseerr””SScciieennttiissttss 9966 CCoonntteennttss CCoonntteennttss iixx TThheePPoollyypphhoonnyyooffHHeeiisseennbbeerrgg’’ssUUnncceerrttaaiinnttyyPPaappeerr 110033 99,, TThhee CCooppeennhhaaggeennDDooggmmaa::TThhee RRhheettoorriicc ooff FFiinnaalliittyy IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn 110033 aannddIInneevviittaabbiilliittyy 119911 TThheePPoollyypphhoonnyyoofftthheeNNoottiioonnooffIInntteerrpprreettaattiioonn 110066 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn 119911 TThheeCCoonnttiinnggeennccyyooffAAccaauussaalliittyy 111100 AAccaauussaalliittyyaannddtthheeIInnddiissppeennssaabbiilliittyyooffCCllaassssiiccaall AAnnsscchhaauulliicchhkkeeiittaannddtthheeSSttaattuussooffCCllaassssiiccaall CCoonncceeppttss 119944 CCoonncceeppttss 111133 OOppeerraattiioonnaalliissmm::FFrroommCCoonnssiisstteennccyyttooIInneevviittaabbiilliittyy TThhee DDiiaallooggiiccaallBBiirrtthhooffBBoohhrr’’ss CCoommpplleemmeennttaarriittyy 111177 AArrgguummeennttss 119999 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn LL1177.. BBoohhmmoonnCCllaassssiiccaallvveerrssuussQQuuaannttuummCCoonncceeppttssaannddoonn DDiiaalloogguueewwiitthhSScchhrrééddiinnggeerr::TThheeSSttrruuccttuurreeooff IInnddeetteerrmmiinniissmm --.. 220066 AAttoommss 112222 ‘‘ 1100.. CCoonnssttrruuccttiinnggtthheeOOrrtthhooddooxxNNaarrrraattiivvee 221111 DDiiaalloogguueewwiitthhEEiinnsstteeiinnaannddCCoommppttoonn.. 113311 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn::““WWhhiiggggiisshh””HHiissttoorryyaanndd““WWiinnnneerr''ss”” CCDDlliiaaaassllhhooggwwuuiieetthhwwiiHHtteehhiissCCeeaannmmbbppeebbrreeggll::llSSeetttt..iinn11gg3355tthheeHHiissttoorriiccaallRReeccoorrdd yyeeggnnggttttnnaammeeDD DDiissSSccttoorrnnaattttiieenngguuiiiieessttiieessaa22nn11dd11QQuuaannttuummJJuummppss 221144 SSttrraaiigghhtt 113388 IInnddeetteerrmmiinniissmmaannddHHiissttoorriiooggrraapphhiiccaallDDoouubbttss 222200 CCoonnffrroonnttaattiioonnwwiitthhPPaauullii::.. 114411 1111.. TThhee MMyytthhooffWWaavvee--PPaarrttiiccllee CCoommpplleemmeennttaarriittyy 222233 EE CCoonncclluussiioonn 114433 EEAA IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn::TThheeDDrraammaattiiccHHiissttoorriiccaall —— MM TThheeCChhaalllleennggeeooffEEiinnsstteeiinn--PPooddoollsskkyy--RRoosseennaanndd SS NNaarrrraattiivvee 222233 SS tthheeTTwwooVVooiicceessooffBBoohhrr’’ssRReessppoonnssee 114455 MMNN MMaatthheemmaattiiccaallPPhhyyssiicciissttssaanndd11 tthheeWWaavveeBBaavvttiivvttee RR TTwwooVVooiicceessiinnBBoohhrr’’ssRReessppoonnsseettooEEiinnsstteeiinn--PPooddoollsskkyy-- EEYY DDiilleemmmmaa 222277 -- AA AAmmbbiigguuiittyyaannddtthheeWWaavvee--PPaarrttiicclleeIIssssuuee 223322 RRoosseenn 114455 BBoohhrr’’ssVViiccttoorryy?? 115511 IIddeeoollooggiiccaallaannddPPeeddaaggooggiiccaallUUsseessooffWWaavvee--PPaarrttiiccllee DDiissttuurrbbaannccee,,RReeaalliittyy,,aannddAAccaauussaalliittyy 115555 CCoommpplleemmeennttaarriittyy 223377 1122.. CCoommpplleemmeennttaarriittyyaassMMeettaapphhoorr 224433 BBoohhrr’’ssDDooccttrriinneeoofftthheeIInnddiissppeennssaabbiilliittyyooffCCllaassssiiccaall CCoonncceeppttssaannddtthheeCCoorrrreessppoonnddeenncceePPrriinncciippllee 116600 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn 224433 .. TThheeWWeebbooffCCoorrrreessppoonnddeenncceessaannddHHaarrmmoonniieess 224488 PPAARRTTTTWWOO RRHHEETTOORRIICCAALLCCOONNSSOOLLIIDDAATTIIOONN ““WWhhoolleenneessss””aassMMeettaapphhoorr 225522 TThhee PPoollyypphhoonnyyoofftthheeCCooppeennhhaaggeennIInntteerrpprreettaattiioonn BBoohhrr::MMaatthheemmaattiiccssaannddCCoommmmoonnLLaanngguuaaggee 225599 aannddtthheeRRhheettoorriiccooffAAnnttiirreeaalliissmm 117711 MMeettaapphhoorriiccaallAAppppeeaallaannddCCoonncclluussiioonn 226622 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn 117711 1133.. HHeerroo WWoorrsshhiipp,,CCoonnssttrruuccttiioonnooffPPaarraaddiiggmmss,, aanndd WWhhaattSScciieennttiissttss““NNeeeeddNNoott”” aanndd““MMuusstt OOppppoossiittiioonn 226699 NNoott””DDoo 117733 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn 226699 TThheeAAppppeeaallooffAAnnttiirreeaalliissmm::SSoommeeGGeenneerraall BBoohhrraannddHHeerrooWWoorrsshhiipp ——..227700 CCoonnssiiddeerraattiioonnss 117766 TThheeIIssssuueeooffCCoonnssiisstteennccyy 227755 RReeaalliittyy,,CCllaassssiiccaallCCoonncceeppttss,,aannddSSyymmbboollss ——--117799 OOppppoossiittiioonn,,PPaarraaddiiggmmss,,aannddPPaassttSScciieennccee 227766 TThheeAAppppeeaallooffAAnnttiirreeaalliissmm::BBoohhrr’’ssVVeerrssiioonn 118844 1144.. DDiiaalloogguueessoorrPPaarraaddiiggmmss?? 228877 AAnnttiirreeaalliissmmaannddOOppppoossiittiioonn 118855 IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn 228877 TThheeAAppppeeaarraanncceeooffCCoonnsseennssuussaannddCCoonncclluussiioonn 118877 HHeeiisseennbbeerrgg’’ss‘‘CClloosseeddTThheeoorriieess”” aannddKKuuhhnniiaann ““PPaarraaddiiggmmss”” 228888 WWhheerreeDDiiddKKuuhhnniiaannIInnccoommmmeennssuurraabbiilliittyyCCoommee FFrroomm?? 229900 || xx CCoonntteennttss HHaannssoonn''ssIInnccoommmmeennssuurraabbiilliittyyaannddtthheeCCooppeennhhaaggeenn IILLLLUUSSTTRRAATTIIOONNSS DDooggmmaa 229944 SSyy PPaarraaddiiggmmssaannddtthheeHHiissttoorryyooffSScciieennccee 330000 PPaarraaddiiggmmssaannddHHoolliissmm 330022 PPaarraaddiiggmmssaannddCCrreeaattiivviittyy 330044 1155.. DDiiaallooggiiccaallPPhhiilloossoopphhyyaannddHHiissttoorriiooggrraapphhyy:: AATTeennttaattiivvee OOuuttlliinnee ‘‘ 330077 IInnPPrraaiisseeooffDDiissaaggrreeeemmeenntt 330088 TThheePPhhiilloossoopphhiiccaallaannddHHiissttoorriiooggrraapphhiiccaallAAddvvaannttaaggeess ooffDDiiaallooggiissmm 331133 TThheeoorryyaassPPrraaccttiiccee::BBeettwweeeennTToooollssaanndd MMeettaapphhoorrss 331177 TTrruutthhaannddBBeeaauuttyy 332200 DDiiaaggrraammss RReeffeerreenncceess 332277 IInnddeexx // 335555 HHeeiisseennbbeerrgg’’ssaannaallyyssiiss ooffaayy--rraayymmiiccrroossccooppee 7722 BBoohhrr’’sstthhoouugghhtteexxppeerriimmeennttssiinntteerrmmssooffccllaassssiiccaallccoonncceeppttss 114488 PPhhoottooggrraapphhss((ffoolllloowwiinnggppaaggee119900)) WWeerrnneerrHHeeiisseennbbeerrggaanndd NNiieellssBBoohhrr NNiieellssBBoohhrraanndd AAllbbeerrttEEiinnsstteeiinn OOttttooSStteerrnn,, WWoollffggaannggPPaauullii,, aannddWWeerrnneerrHHeeiisseennbbeerrgg-- PPaauullDDiirraaccaannddWWeerrnneerrHHeeiisseennbbeerrgg NNiieellssBBoohhrr,,JJaammeess FFrraanncckk,, aannddHHaannssHHaannsseenn EErrwwiinnSScchhrrééddiinnggeerr,, tthheekkiinnggooffSSwweeddeenn,,aannddWWeerrnneerrHHeeiisseennbbeerrgg WWaalltthheerrMMeeiissssnneerr,, MMaaxx BBoorrnn,, aannddJJaammeessFFrraanncckk NNiieellssBBoohhrraanndd WWoollffggaannggPPaauullii AAllbbeerrttEEiinnsstteeiinnaannddWWoollffggaannggPPaauullii FFrriittssZZeerrnniikkee WWiilllliiaammDDuuaannee NNiieellssBBoohhrr,, WWoollffggaanngg PPaauullii,, LLootthhaarrNNoorrddhheeiimm,,aannddLLeeoonnRRoosseennffeelldd PPRREEFFAACCEE AANNDD AACCKKNNOOWWLLEEDDGGMMEENNTTSS EEyy TThhiiss bbooookkiiss aabboouuttsscciieennttiiffiiccddiiaalloogguueess tthhaattmmaaddee tthhee qquuaannttuumm rreevvoolluu--'' ttiioonn.. TThhee ddeessccrriippttiioonnoofftthheeiinnttrriiccaattee fflluuxx oofftthheessee ddiiaalloogguueess rreevveeaallss..tthhee ddyynnaammiiccaannddiinntteennsseellyyppeerrssoonnaallnnaattuurree ooffsscciieennttiiffiicc tthheeoorriizziinngg.. DDuurriinngg tthhee wwoorrkk oonntthhiissbbooookkIIccaammeettoo tthhee rreewwaarrddiinnggrreeaalliizzaattiioonn tthhaatt aann oonn-- ggooiinngg rreessppoonnssiivveenneessssttootthheeccoonncceerrnnss ooff ootthheerrss,, iinn aaddddiittiioonn ttoo bbeeiinngg aa bbaassiicchhuummaannvvaalluuee,,iissaapprreeccoonnddiittiioonn ooff sscciieennttiiffiicc ccrreeaattiivviittyy.. TThhiissbbooookk ddeeaallss wwiitthh tthhee aannaattoommyy ooff sscciieennttiiffiicc ddiissccoovveerryy ((ppaarrtt 11)) aanndd wwiitthh tthhee ssttrraatteeggiieess ooff ccoonnssoolliiddaattiioonn ooff tthhee oorrtthhooddooxxqquuaannttuumm pphhiilloossoopphhyy ((ppaarrtt22)).. aaaa!! mmeeee :: MMyyaapppprrooaacchhiissbbaasseeddoonnbbootthhaaddmmiirraattiioonnffoorrtthheeccrreeaattiioonnooffsscciieennttiiffiicc nnoovveellttyy aanndd ccrriittiicciissmm ttoowwaarrdd tthhee eessttaabblliisshhmmeenntt ooff sscciieennttiiffiicc ddooggmmaass.. TThhiiss bbooookk ooffffeerrss aa tthhoorroouugghh hhiissttoorriiccaall rreeeevvaalluuaattiioonn ooff tthhee eemmeerrggeennccee aanndd ccoonnssoolliiddaattiioonnoofftthheeCCooppeennhhaaggeenniinntteerrpprreettaattiioonnooffqquuaannttuumm pphhyyss---- iiccss——tthhee ddoommiinnaannttiinntteerrpprreettaattiioonn ssiinnccee iittss llaauunncchhiinngg iinn 11992277 bbyy NNiieellss BBoohhrr,, WWeerrnneerrHHeeiisseennbbeerrgg,,aannddMMaaxxBBoorrnn.. IIttiissnnoottaahhiissttoorriiaann’’ssttaasskkttooooffffeerraassppeecciiffiiccaalltteerrnnaattiivveettootthheeoorrtthhooddooxx CCooppeennhhaaggeenniinntteerrpprreettaattiioonn..IIttaakkeennoo ssttaanndd oonntthhee eexxiissttiinnggaalltteerrnnaattiivveess ttoo tthheeoorrtthhooddooxxpphhiilloossoopphhyy..TThhiissbbooookk ddooeessnnoottddeeaallwwiitthhtthheeeexxtteennssiivvee aanndd lliivveellyy ccoonntteemmppoorraarryy rreesseeaarrcchh oonn tthhee pphhiilloossoopphhiiccaall pprroobblleemmss ooff qquuaannttuummpphhyyssiiccss..RRaatthheerr,,mmyyhhiissttoorriiccaall,, pphhiilloossoopphhiiccaall,,aannddssoocciioollooggiiccaall aannaallyyssiiss ooff tthhee CCooppeennhhaaggeenn pphhiilloossoopphhyy ddeemmoonnssttrraatteess tthhee ppoossssiibbiilliittyy aannddtthheenneeeeddooffaavviiaabblleeaalltteerrnnaattiivveettoo tthhee oorrtthhooddooxxiinntteerrpprreettaattiioonn.. -- AAss mmyy wwoorrkk oonn tthhiissbbooookkpprrooggrreesssseedd,, mmyy rreevviissiioonn ooff tthhee hhiissttoorryy ooff tthheeqquuaannttuummrreevvoolluuttiioonnggrraadduuaallllyyeevvoollvveeddiinnttooaaggeenneerraallccrriittiiqquueeoofftthhee rreevvoolluuttiioonnaarryynnaarrrraattiivveessffoorrtthheeddeessccrriippttiioonnoofftthheesscciieennttiiffiicccchhaannggee..FFoo-- ccuussiinngg oonn tthhee qquuaannttuummrreevvoolluuttiioonn,, tthhiiss bbooookk pprroovviiddeess aann aannaallyyssiiss ooff hhooww rreevvoolluuttiioonnaarryy ssttoorriieess iinn hhiissttoorryy ooff sscciieennccee aarree ccoonnssttrruucctteedd,, hhooww ddiivviissiioonnbbeettwweeeenn““wwiinnnneerrss”” aanndd ““lloosseerrss”” iiss ffaabbrriiccaatteedd,, hhooww tthhee ooppppoo-- ssiittiioonniissmmiissrreepprreesseenntteeddaannddddeelleeggiittiimmiizzeedd,, aannddhhoowwtthheeiilllluussiioonnoofftthhee eexxiisstteennccee ooffaappaarraaddiiggmmaattiiccccoonnsseennssuuss aammoonnggppaarrttiicciippaannttssiiss aacchhiieevveedd.. xiv PrefaceandAcknowledgments PrefaceandAcknowledgments xv The bulk of my critical analysis of the Copenhagen philosophy of National EndowmentforHumanities (grantnumber FA 31327-92) dur- complementarity and indeterminismis found in part 2, which is more ing my work onparts of this book. I am also grateful to David and accessible to thegeneralreaderandcanbereadseparatelyfrom therest Frances Dibner and the Dibner Foundation for the endowmentof the ofthe book. Nevertheless, parts 1 and2 are mutually illuminatingand BawparaDrussDibnerChairinHistoryandPhilosophyofScienceatthe conceptually interconnected.Theintroductorychapter1 offersanover- Hebrew UniversityofJerusalem,whichIhavethehonorto hold. view ofthe major themesofthisbook, whiletheconcluding chapter 15 Part ofchapter 7 isbased onmyjointpaperwith Arthur Fine (Beller is anargumentforthe dialogical approachforstudying the advance of ~ and Fine 1994). Portions ofchapters 2,4, 6, 8, 9, 13, and 14 are basedin scientificknowledge. partonmypreviouslypublishedarticles(Beller1983, 1985, 1990, 1992a, Thisbookwaslonginthemaking, andIhaveaccumulated:alonglist - 1996a, 1997a, and 1997b). of debts. There are a few scholarsto whom my debt and gratitude are . lam grateful toJohnSanders forpermissionto quote materials from especially deep. Manyideasinthisbookweredeveloped whileI imag- - hiscollection(1987)ofBohr’spublishedpapersandunpublishedmanu- ined addressing Arthur Fine. Arthur’s writings and personal encour- scripts. The originals ofBohr’s unpublishedmanuscripts are deposited agement were invaluable. I owe a great debt to Jim Cushing, forhis - inthe Niels Bohr Archive in Copenhagen. Theyare available in micro- unbelievably meticulous and caring reading of the draft of this book, film inthe ArchivefortheHistoryofQuantumPhysics (AHQP), copies for his continuous support, and for his important work onrelatedis- ofwhich are deposited inseveraluniversitiesthroughout the world. sues.YemimaBen-Menahem,acolleagueandfriend,providedvaluable Tam grateful toFelicity Pors from the NielsBohrArchive in Copen- criticismwithararecombinationofphilosophicalwisdomandgraceful hagenfor herassistance. I also want to express my gratitude totheli- encouragement. SamSchweberandJohnStachel, whotookanearlyin- brarians oftheVanLeerInstitute, EdelsteinLibrary, and theNielsBohr terest in my work,were always very generous with their intellectual. LibraryintheAmericanInstituteofPhysicsfortheirhelp. I also grate- and personal support. Tom Ryckmanattentively read the draftofthis © fully acknowledge the courtesy ofthe EmilioSegréVisual Archivesin bookandprovidedvaluablecomments. IamgratefultoAllanFranklin ' theAmericanInstituteofPhysicsforthephotographsappearinginthis for many stimulating and pleasant conversations we had during my book, and I thank Jack Scott, the photo administrator, for his helpful stayinBoulder. ; assistance. I am fortunate tohave afriendlyand‘stimulatingenvironment,with VeryspecialthanksareduetomyfriendShuliBarzilai,whoreturned Yehuda Elkana, a teacher and a founder of an extensive academic ac- two years ago from hertrip to Russia with a unique souvenir—the tivityinhistoryandphilosophyofscienceinIsrael,andwithcolleagues photo she took ofthe statue ofEinstein andBohrin a park in Moscow. atTheHebrewUniversityofJerusalemsuchasYaronEzrahi, RafiFalk, Thephoto decoratesthejacketofthisbook. MichaelHead, ItamarPitowsky,MarkSteiner, andIsacharUnna. Iam one of those lucky authors who has had the pleasure and the Mylist ofdebtsis alongone, fromStephenBrush, myPh.D.adviser privilege of working with Susan Abrams, executive editor at the Uni- in the early days of my academiclife; to Shelly Goldstein and Anna versity of Chicago Press, and to benefit from her sharp mind and big Sfard, with whom recently engagedin fruitful dialogues. I am also heart. I am grateful to the wonderfulstaffatthe University ofChicago grateful to the followingpeoplefortheirstimulation, support, orassis- Press: toRodneyPowell andCharlesClifton,editorialassociatesforthe tance at some stage of working on this project: Pnina Abir-Am, Gid- sciences; to Leslie Keros, whoworkedontheproofs; toMartinHertzel, eon Akavia, Diana Barkan, the late Yosef Ben-David, Michel Bitbol, who designed the book; to Joan Davies, who supervised the produc- Jed Buchwald, Catherine Chevalley, Robert Cohen, Olivier Darrigol, tion; and to DavidAftandilian, whohandled thepromotion. I am also Alon Drory, Detleff Diirr, Gideon Freudenthal, Michael Friedman, grateful to Diana Gillooly for her meticulous and dedicated work on James Fuchs, Ruthi Glasner, Galina Granek-Tiroshi, Gerald Holton, themanuscriptand toJamesFarnedfortheindex. Don Howard, Roger Hurwitz, Tanya Karachentzeva, Arnon Keren, Lastbutnotleast, Iwanttothankmyfamilyforyearsofpatienceand Alexei Kojevnikov, Edward MacKinnon, Avishai Margalit, Edna support. Myhusband, Aaron,hasalwaystakenacaring interestinthis Ullman-Margalit,JiirgenRenn,EstherRosenfeld, CristoffSchmidt,Zur work, providing uncompromising criticism and technical assistance. Shalev, RogerStuewer, and LindaWessels. Mygratitude toAaronisbeyondwords. I gratefully acknowledge the supportofthe National ScienceFoun- dation (grant numbers 9011053 and 9123124) and the support of the A U P vatadatgh cle CHAPTER 1 ED . Novelty and Dogma Ibelievethattosolveanyproblemthathasneverbeensolvedbefore,youhave toleavethedoortotheunknownajar. Youhave topermitthepossibility thatyoudonothaveitexactlyright. RichardFeynman 1998, 26-27 Adialoguecanbeamonganynumberofpeople, notjusttwo. Evenoneper- son canhaveasenseofdialoguewithinhimself, ifthespiritofthedialogueis present. Thepictureorimagethatthisderivationsuggests isofastream ofmeaningflowingamongandthrough usandbetweenus. DavidBohm1996, 6 DialogicalCreativity “Science is rooted in conversations.” These words were written by Werner Heisenberg, a great physicist of the twentieth century and a founderofthe quantum revolution (1971, vii). How exactlyis science rootedinconversations?Andhowdidanextendedconversationamong Scientists resultinthequantumrevolution? These are themajorissues ofthisbook. RES4 Science is also rooted in doubt and uncertainty. “Andit is ofpara- HeLea imgonuonrtanicmepaonrdttahnices,dionubotr.de.r. .towhmaatkweeprcoalglresscsi,enttihfaitcwkenorwelceodggniezteotdhaiys bs is a body ofstatements ofvarying degrees of certainty. Some ofthem A are mostunsure; someofthemarenearly sure; but noneis absolutely certain.Scientistsareusedtothis.”Thesewordsbelongtoanothergreat e scientistofthetwentiethcentury,thequantumphysicistRichardFeyn- man (1998, 3, 27). “Weknowthatitis consistent to be able to liveand T notknow,” continuedFeynman:“Ialways live withoutknowing.That iseasy. HowyougettoknowiswhatIwanttoknow” (1998, 27-28). LE Howis the presence of uncertainty and doubtbuilt into scientific T theorizingatitsmostbasiclevel?Howdoscientistslivewithoutknow- ing?Andhowdotheygettoknow? I argue throughoutthisbook that the question ofhowscientists liveinuncertainty, the question ofhow L z 2 ChapterOne NoveltyandDogma 3 they create their knowledge, and the questionofhow science is rooted through which knowledgegrows. A dialogicalanalysis, by closelyfol- inconversationsare, in fact, one and thesame.Jelaborateananswerto lowing ideas as they gradually form in numerous dialogues between thisquestion forthe caseofthequantumrevolution. scientists, deals primarily with the cognitive content of science. It re- Thisbookexaminesthefluid,open-ended,andoftenambiguouspro- cess of scientific creativity, treating it as being rooted in, and perhaps quirespainstakingattentionto everynuanceoftheprimarysources. In irinedsi,setxipnegruiimsheanbtlse,farnodm,inasntrounmgoeinntgss.ciIeandtdirfeiscsctohnevecrenstartailonisasbuoeuotfthheoow- ftahcat,nitthdeeomladenrd,s“cilnotseerrnaalt”te(netvioolnuttoiotnhaerym)inhuitsitoaryofosfcisecniteinficceraenadsontihnagn “rational reconstruction” accounts. theoretical knowledge is achieved, articulated, and legitimated. Ialso My exposition differs from the usual accounts by describing the deal with another major issue: the conceptual and emotionalturmoil - _fluxofideaswithoutpresupposingunderlyingconceptualframeworks, utcrnueIpmardtpeeehcsdcyebrsdyiiebcnaeittseattdensmds—pctdaosinpaaetllooyaginzdnueiteestnrheptirhanaetttrrratedihsicecuaalptloteteqefdunlatuixnnqtsouucfaimendnipttahiulfimiolcgofubsoerorsmpeahaalyki.mtshomTr.nho.eg.usgehqsudoainaf-- cpmseacoathrsieeebmllreeeesss,swtisrotcirhiceptnatetdhrieafsidccaiacgclcmeh,esap.natgIreeend.nfLhoaiitcvst,iteonatrsghiieilosnygerdcanoopoumhtbpiicatoatnalsi,nbndlwoehuteniwoctinehtsrehtraotfiohnen“tbydaeyilgsnilenaofombstai”lccsaoonmrod-af logues underlay both the open-minded foundational research and the “commitments.” Nor are Kuhnian and post-Kuhnian“agreement” and erectionofthe orthodoxinterpretationofquantumphysics: theCopen- “consensus” suitable to describethedynamicsoflivingwithoutknow- hageninterpretation.Tracingthewebofdialoguesrevealsastoryabout ing.Doubtanduncertaintyshouldbeincorporatedintothebasicterms theworkingsoffree scientificimaginationandabouttheconsolidation __usedtodescribethegrowthofknowledge.Fromthedialogicalperspec- ofscientificdogma. — tive,itis“creative disagreement’—withoneself(doubt)orwithothers One of the major puzzles in the historyof quantum physics is the (lackofconsensus)—thatplaysthecrucialroleintheadvanceofknow1- existence of numerous contradictions in the Copenhagen interpreta- edge.The privilege tobeunsure,to theorizefreely,toexplore different tion. Whatis the sourceofthesecontradictions?Andwhyare they im- optionsatthesametime, isincorporatedintothenotionofcreativedia- potent to detract.from the spectacular power of quantum physics? A logical flux. Iwillelaborateonthephilosophical,historiographical,and largepartofthisbookconstitutesananswertothesequestions. sociological advantagesofsuchadialogicalapproachintheconcluding The analysis and‘the narrativeinthis work are permeated with the chapterofthebook. notion of communicability. I argue that dialogue underlies scientific This book simultaneously revises the story of the quantum revolu- creativity and thattheemergenceofscientificnoveltycannotbeunder- tionandoutlines a tentative programforadialogicalhistoriographyof stood without scrutinizing the ways scientists respond to and address science. My work began with a revision of the history of matrix me- eachother. Thisbookanalyzes thecomplex,multidirectionaldialogical chanics (Beller 1983) and progressed to revisions of other major epi- nature of scientific theorizing (part 1) and the strategies by which this sodes in the history of quantum physics, such as the emergence of dialogical flux is flattenedinto amonologicalnarrative(part2). Born’s probabilistic interpretation (Beller 1990) and the birth of Bohr’s This book is based on a close studyofprimarysources—correspon- complementarity(Beller1992a).Itgraduallybecamecleartomethatthe dencebetweenthe participants, notebooks, originalpapers. Historians need for ongoing revision has a fundamental historiographical cause. ofquantum physics are fortunate tohave access to theArchive for the This cause is intimately connected with the complex dialogica]l nature HistoryofQuantumPhysics(AHQP),wherecorrespondenceandorigi- ofthought and with the strategies used to flattenitinto linear mono- nal manuscripts are collected. Thus'Ihad the opportunity to study in logicalnarratives. : crrodeefeatasmqalpieiuolznatedtnodehtnettuchhiemaenbttrpurdehiitaycalaaslitilozecgassitpociaaaoptldnuhdbsatrldhieadassrtlhseoessendcsdgsiiecvenwiitaehitcnifyhticciphofetcirhirceemdraeepitaaaispntveeiertstmsyh,eeniiorrsaltgnfeeodutdntnmledaoyrassrms.etechinIgeetengantfrileoafrludiaynculdaldceylio,rlars-y-I datmihanset[dterbixitenixhgcsetittienhwonenmcaoevbyroeeyfdtitewhnsteecwfeorlornieuptxtttiohict(eaaocllnhml.aayoptIftdrnietisrhcxtehi2aa)nq,npcuttdaaetrwnrhgsaetuovui2renmeagtarinpeacdpvgaoalr3liofunaIrtscdtiaheometsnhsecwerwciiorrbtyerehscktehasainol—vlweatidnzhaaeesldtmysoasatrsitrysrotinhooxgeff logicalinthe senseelaboratedinthisbook. ; seaTrhcehedsiafloorgtihcealmaopsptrboaascihcdtotethaielshiinstoorrdyeroftsoccieonncceeipstu“ablioztettohmeuppr”oc—eists nferenowdnltryaetsciuorlnetaaotfmedoankcgnoonqwculeeapdtnugtaeul,mlytphhfeyarsseicciwinsaatstsi.nngIonaptnlhdaecefemruofiottrifouslntaarlomlnbygigi“nubtieetlniyseefosfc”otnhi-en e i Jesictbeit 4 ChapterOne NoveltyandDogma 5 “pawattibeohhcnniryeTdodlSeshiemmcaisetahPmtclaertiisulfcérrtlldiimiiumixmif’nxenlpsnttgulnieohieiprtfsedreprmo”’isrorasdeoentn(etrtwocodaaihua“stciaincuvipnioactonednnencemersoamtmtd2phmeeaii)eprsmdnt.rmitmceonitsoemaontmnectieomtrhsdsnisg.m.tte,”WfetnSeotmaeciwousdmenfiiptdtrlloohoaaofslertaimmlitryspaoihe,aetnvirceraistIelsitii“mwxchvb.ialaeelettndNllhdooHiehnreeaoitfiirirso”nsgstylteuoioeneiarngrb,tnypyedpcr,rBiaooegorraft’rntrsisniqevo’c,cueltsptaBehpiosentpsorortsansfousu’onebeesrmdd-,es-. acsbc(“pillootlWlapoahnTgiihniecthimingye.enuscpbaasnYtwldenreoiirhetdom“sgaaneppisstce1nhoo9nfpicnnS9slalaca2tauton,ebbeehsiplvns1oltceeiu6piuen9nrhtia)”vyy.tnlWiehievTcofeoniefhfadpnedneiepbpcinbetaaeaoilesdrprrvopuagsteglccd,uniiuaihecgcnngnsagaanmoilsetoatfssiwottltomfwuiein—idicvpbdeotnehftiheoionieotnlfntruhsovecemtlysirroiiospreranprmtaeoeehtteinttiyimtmovaic”iveeuaiotesnlcdyfcnth.tiawpoeg(aoIshnorcfnyctliehii,sledafceoiniiphmastncstsaeoivdepnfkpoiarttilhnnicevsia3one)rpcp,lw.siarsfl4rlPaclaeohcaaetpitdlxirlrilegoieocex-en---ed- -mcmocfuaaatttnmhiabseottemnhaabentoomdfiracBrtoaooinlrwcneab’taldsos,iotclpoisrdo,onelbtvsaaeebnorlidvpoleprirnseetodtfit,iucvnaoeidnnnatdimesmerssenpuutetrcasecap.telhasiIytstnisftowuienlcarladsypleramoe“pontppnialstvrihetaeerdidadietwegfeaifmsstia.hcttoiTiheuhcentec”sapyeritioscofmsloueatealchsrsy,e- mmtHgreaeuejineaostttermhpneacbrtnoeotnrtb,cghlee’eopsmrit.dtu“eraraelesadthoumufcerttndhitleoeonGfoeofmrfqemwauasaanuvnretpehumpimealcnopktsheoiytpssnh,ie”tcrhsbeF—eitucchnhactemeeenrwotettarhoieerntisiyomouppusaorprmceteeraa.nostfuTfrhtoeihr-se thattherewasagreementinthecommunityofquantumphysicists.And Scientific creativity as a dialogical flux is exemplified by the emer- on this point the orthodox and the oppositionwere united; agreement gence ofHeisenberg’suncertainty principle, which I describe inchap- onthe potencyofthesetoolspreventedscientificpracticefromdisinte- ter 4. We can see how Heisenberg theorized without a clearly delin- _tgtireoadTnthsiae)nogprh,oeasbtvtieeecrtatihlhoeeritiproho(iolclswhoans(poetmpqeuhoraimtc3eia)on.lntTdsui,hmsema,egfwarthcehtieolmtdehesantptohsftihalsesooosllruoeatptriihgoceinaca,lasltatoinhoddleesyaaspmhapaayvrre.eoxasidomamape-- iIeasnantstditenedgoandhc,gioosnwitcenoergpoitbdousogaeurlbratvpfefhryoatmrhpeerwaeiocsnrhediknite,ssvpiewonninsgteahab-oidutlithimeteo“ynrbeseotlfiiiocoenafpalsel”bnrp-aeiencandtkdute“rhdecrsoo:dmuiJgmsahia.mtgmmrTeeehneremtesdenex.t--” Ia autonomy allowsscientists to theorize without taking an interpretive _Scribedtheuncertaintyformulaasemergingnaturallyfromtheimpera- stand. The EnglishphysicistCharlesDarwinwrote to Niels Bohr: “Itis tive to adapt the new mathematical formalism’to thé possibilities of a partofmy doctrinethatthedetailsofaphysicist’s philosophy do not measurement (Jammer 1966).* The perspective offered by social histo- matter much” (Darwinto Bohr, December 1926, AHOP). Thisbeliefin tians similarlyfocusesonly onsingleaspect: a predilection for acau- the primacy of mathematical tools was especially strong in Gottingen, sality among quantum physicists determined their efforts to interpret i“nMsaptihreimngatBiocrsn’ksnoawnsdbeHtetiseerntbhearng’osurisenatrucihtifoonr”awansewBorqnu‘asnmtoutmtot(hienotreyr.- csereaeie Ftheeuenre1w963q)u.antum mechanics along probabilistic lines (Forman 1971; view withBorn, AHQP). I describe Heisenberg’s discovery of the uncertainty relations as a intTehreprneetuattriaolnistyhaosfaanmoatthheermaftairc-arelacfhoirnmgalciosnmsewqiutehncrees:pescctitenotipstosssmibalye mwuiltthimdiarnecytiionntaelrlporcoucteosrss,,wihncilcuhdtinogokspulcahceprionmaicnoemnmtunnaimceatsiavseEnientstweoirnk, ha lgoisvoephayllthaeutyhaorrietywiilnliinngtetropraectceipvte.mSautctehrhsutmobaleferewsilgeandaetriso,nwfrhoomsephpihlio-- nScohlreésdsiinmgepro,rtPaanutlif,orDiHreaics,enBboehrrg,’sBodrisnc,ovaenrdy,Jaorredatnh.e nLaesmsesknCaomwpnb,elyle,t sophicalexplorationisoftennothingbutaconvenientchoicenottodeal Duane, Zernike, and Sentfleben. In chapter 4 we follow the process a “with confusing and perhapsirrelevant matters.It is this attitude that ofdiscovery and observehowfragmentsofinsight gradually emerge, tchreeaCteospreonhoamgfeonraonrtahuotdhooxryi.tativeandprivilegedinterpretation,suchas haoprwefiederaesncclea,sohf,chcohoasnigneg,ondiesianptpeelalre,cotruaslurovpitvieo.nTohveegrraandoutahlerf,oorfmidenfgino-f ingwhattheoptionsare—alloccurinacoalescenceofinsights,arrived 1. ThispositionwastakenbyDarwin:“I’mquitereadyinadvancetobelievethatyour atindifferentdialoguesandatdifferenttimes. bceristtiscoirstmsoafrceoqnutirtieburtiigohtn,tbhuattIpefeoeplltehaltikpeemrehapcsanthmiaskdeoetsontohtemsautbtjeerctmiuscwho.rkBeicnagusoeutthoef Heisenberg’s discovery of the uncertainty principle was a complex pwiytroosoeurlbkflmeiawsmyaswms,raldokeonaengve”iinna(grDtethaahwrteriwoqtinunegcsftatoniroBoneosahmsorif,ltpyhDrebeiebcneectgmiiapbnklneeienrnsgo1ttv9o2eo6yr,obeuAny.dH,IaOinnPtfy)ai.crstehveaivrsedendlyiffputohnsedsaiimdbeelaensttaohlnatwithdhieecahswtothhraekt ucanonc2nd.etrraJtisaabaiumnntmeteecyddrtpootadapetlsehhcreircsiartsbeoeaatrdiyott.onhooelFffcrooonrumtnrecJloeauvrmcetmiaredisarnyt’tbiysneagatnnwBadeolyhecsrnoi’smsBipoalthenrmdiseanHnntedoaitrHsieceltnieybsa.eerrnghb’eosrwrgetwshipetehcdtirisevasegperpocesteimtteoinottnhsse d n t 6 ChapterOne NoveltyandDogma 7 e t r process of disagreements, qualifications, elaborations, supplementa- Rimini, and Weber 1986). The flux ofcreativeresearchcannctbe forced tions,and borrowings. He had no foundational commitments, evenon intoanunequivocal, final conceptualscheme. such basic issues as discontinuity and indeterminism; rather his pref- The description of Heisenberg’s creative theorizing calls for a re- erence for discontinuity and acausality took shape gradually in many evaluation of the role of “lesser” scientists in the growth of scientific fruitfuldialogues.Thoughimmersedininterpretiveefforts,Heisenberg knowledge (chapter 4). We will see that some of the most important wasuncertainevenaboutwhattheword“interpretation”means(chap- insightspertainingto Heisenberg’sformulationoftheuncertaintyprin- ter 5). Disagreements with interlocutors—a militant one with Schré- ciplebelonged to scientists whosenames do notappearinthereceived dinger, asubdued yetpainful onewithBohr, arestrainedone withJor- historyofquantum mechanics—SentflebenandCampbell.Theissueis dan and Born were triggers for Heisenberg’s reasoning. Agreement. notoneofpriority, eventhoughthedistributionofcreditisoftenunfair. too played a part, in the form of Heisenberg’s partial, often only tem- ~ ' Neither Campbell nor Sentfleben, from their positions in the commu- porary, acceptance of the ideas of others, especially those’ of Dirac, nicative web, could have accomplished exactly what Heisenberg did. Campbell, and Duane. Heisenberg’s case demonstrates how genuine Yetneithercould Heisenberghavedevelopedhisideashadhenotbeen novelty emerges through dialogical creativity. Dialogical creativity is respondingcreatively to Campbell’s and Sentfleben’sinsights. Heisen- not an instantaneous “eureka” experience;it is rather a patiently sus- berg’s discovery is organically linked to the ideasofthe“lesser” scien- tainedprocessofresponsivenessand addressivitytoiisideasofothers, tists. From the epistemological point of view, the notionofa scientific bothactualand imagined. collectiveisintrinsicto the dialogicalapproach. One might expect that in a published scientificpaper, all previous *_.We canreevaluate the prevalent ideaofa lonelycreativeindividual, cognitivetensionswouldberesolvedand acoherentunequivocal mes- _and of solitude as a precondition of creativity. Conventional opinion sageexpressed. Yet ananalysisofHeisenberg’suncertaintypaperfinds holdsthat“the sparkofcreativityburnsmostbrightlyinamindwork- cleartraces ofpast struggles, conflictingvoiceson thesame issue, and ing in solitude” (Storr 1988). When Heisenberg “fabricated” the new unresolved tensions (chapter5). Thepolyphonyofthecreative actech- quantummechanics(hisexpression,vanderWaerden1967, 15),hewas oesinthe’paperitself. Similarly, atleast twoconflicting, in fact incom- isolated on the island of Helgoland. After theirstormydebates on the patible, voices can be heard in Bohr’s response to Einstein-Podolsky- interpretationofquantummechanicsinthefatefulyearof1926,Heisen- Rosen’schallengeto the Copenhageninterpretation(chapter 7). bergandBohr needed to get awayfromeachother.Separated, Heisen- One mightobject, then, thatsuchunresolvedtensionsperhaps char- bergwrote the essentials ofhis uncertainty paperandBohrelaborated acterize scientific papers written during revolutionary upheavals, but his complementarity. Yet solitude does not imply cognitive isolation. whenthings settle down and the revolution is over, a new paradigm _IfHeisenberg needed time away from Bohr,it wasinorderto strike a triumphs and the foundational debate is closed. There is, the argu- proper, uncoerced balance in his own communicativenetwork of cog- mentmightcontinue, atthepresenttimeonlyonecorrect,agreed-upon nitiveresponses (chapters4 and 6). meaningoftheuncertainty principleandofwave-particlecomplemen- Thedialogical perspectiveprovidesanewwaytoreadpublishedsci- tarity.Butisthere? Onecanfinda“correct’”meaningintextbooks, orin entific texts. Concealed doubtbecomesvisible, and apaperbecomes a some philosophical writings cn the quantum theory—in short, in the fascinating scientific and human document, resoundingwith conflict- graveyards of science. On the research frontier nothing is immune to inginner voices, populatedbymany“virtual”interlocutors(chapters5 reappraisal—be ituncertainty, complementarity,oreventhedetermin- and 6). We will see in chapter 5 that Heisenberg’suncertainty paperis ismofclassicalphysics (chaostheories)andtheindeterminismofquan- permeated with doubts and indecisionon such centralissues as inde- tum physics (Bohm’s theory and Bohmianalternatives, such as Diirr, terminism, realism, visualizability, and the statusofclassical concepts Goldstein, and Zanghi 1992a, 1992b, 1996). Numerous meaningsofthe in the quantum domain. A comparison of the (seemingly) confident e uncertainty formulas are proposed in current research papers (Home published paper with the almost identical draft (in a letter to Pauli) C andWhitaker 1992; Valentini 1996). ThesameistrueofBorn’sprobabi- filledwithdoubtregardingall thebasicinterpretiveissuesrevealshow ee listic interpretation andhis solutionofthe collision problem (Daumer misleading it is to ascribe any “beliefs” or “commitments” to Heisen- m 1996). Similarly, there is no agreement about the meaning or even the berg.Myanalysis applies totheissuesofacausalityandpositivismthat e validityofwave-particlecomplementarity(chapter11).Evensuchbasic according to the accepted history ofquantumphysics,arethe two cen- e formulasasSchrédinger’s equationareopentomodification (Ghirardi, tralpillarsof Heisenberg’suncertaintypaper.