Quantification of the Tourism Climate of Algeria Based on the Climate-Tourism-Information-Scheme

18 Pages·2017·2.43 MB·English

atmosphere
Article
Quantification of the Tourism Climate of Algeria
Based on the Climate-Tourism-Information-Scheme
SalahSahabiAbed1 ID andAndreasMatzarakis2,* ID
1 OfficeNationaldelaMétéorologie,CentreClimatologiqueNational,1,Av.MedKhemisti,DarElBeida,
BP153,Algiers16100,Algeria;[email protected]
2 ResearchCenterHumanBiometeorology,DeutscherWetterdienst,Stefan-Meier-Str.4,
D-79104Freiburg,Germany
* Correspondence:[email protected]
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:1)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)(cid:8)(cid:1)
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)
Received:20April2018;Accepted:2July2018;Published:4July2018
Abstract: The relevance and role of aesthetic, thermal and physical facets to climatic tourism
potentialoverAlgeriaat12.00UTC(13.00localtime)areanalyzed. Thisroleisrevealedusingthe
Climate-Tourism-Information-Scheme(CTIS)elaboratedforsixAlgeriancitieshavingindisputable
tourismpotentialityandrepresentingdifferentregionsandclimateregimes: Coastline,Highlandand
Sahara zone. In this paper, the relevance of the use of the 10-day time-scale resolution of the
physiologicallyequivalenttemperature(PET)derivedfromthebody-atmosphereenergybalance
aswellastheimportanceoftheCTISatthistime-scaleresolutionisillustrated. TheCTISdiagrams
producedconcerntheperiod1986–2015andcomprisedetailedinformationonthefrequenciesofthe
occurrenceofdifferentclimatologicalandhumanbiometeorologicalparametersthroughouttheyear,
whichcouldhelptouriststoplanaheadtheirvacations. Asignificantupwardtrendindiscomfort
conditions,aswellasasubstantialdeclineinhumanthermalcomfortacceptability,areobserved
during the period of the study. The obtained results could help enormously in the promotion of
tourismandleisureservicesinthecountryasahighlypromisingeconomicsectorinthefutureand
thosewhoareinvolved,suchastouroperators,bydiversifyingtheirproductsthroughtheprovision
ofalternativetypesoftourismofferingsinlinewiththeclimateconditions.
Keywords: Climate-Tourism-Information-Scheme; physiologically equivalent temperature;
humancomfort;tourism;Algeria;Sahara;desertclimate
1. Introduction
Mostcategoriesoftourismarecloselylinkedtoclimate[1].Weatherandclimatehaveasubstantial
influence on the tourism sector and are very important for recreation and outdoor activities [2].
Thisinfluencenotablyaffectsthetemporaldistributionoftouriststhroughouttheyear.
Yet,asBeckenandWilson[3]note,theinterrelationbetweenclimateandtourismisinsufficiently
understoodaswellaslittleresearched. ForAlgeria,todate,thisrelationshiphasnotbeenamajorfield
forresearch. Practically,fewstudiesbasedonadeterministicapproach,assessingtheeffectofclimate
conditionsinAlgeriauponhumanthermalcomfortareavailable[4–6]. Fewinvestigationsintroducing
usefulinformation,aimingtohelpdomesticandinternationaltouriststoanticipatetheirchoiceofthe
appropriateperiodtovisittheirtargetedtouristicsitesandcitiesinAlgeriaareprovided[7–10].
Fortourismpurposes,severalindicesareproducedtoprovidedirectandsimpleopinionsabout
theintendeddestinationandtointerpretthecombinedeffectsofcertainatmosphericcomponentsand
tomakepossiblethemeasurementandratingofclimateconditions[11].
One of these indices is the Tourism Climate Index (TCI), developed by Mieczkowski [12].
Thisindexisbasedonpreviousresearchinrelationtoclimateclassificationsfortourismandtheoretical
Atmosphere2018,9,250;doi:10.3390/atmos9070250 www.mdpi.com/journal/atmosphere
Atmosphere2018,9,250 2of18
factors from the biometeorological literature related to human comfort. The TCI results from the
combinationofsevenindependentandbioclimaticparameters. Thelimitationoftheexistingtourism
indices, principally the TCI, is that all of them do not consider human thermal comfort/stress
approaches,whichrelyonhuman-biometeorology[2,13]. Moreover,TCIremainsnotvalidforwinter
tourism[13].
LatifaHénia[14]conductedastudybasedontheuseoftheTCIinTunisia. Thisindexallows
exploringthetourismclimateanditsvariationatspatialandseasonalscaletoassessthecountry’s
potential climate and diversity of tourism products. The form of the TCI adopted in the study
was based on the results of a questionnaire survey among tourists during their stay in Tunisia.
The results of the survey show that sunshine, humidity and wind come almost equally with air
temperatureinthedeterminationofclimatecomfortfortourists. Theauthorevokesthattheuseof
theseindicesandthethresholdsforevaluatingtheeffectofdifferentclimateelementsonthelevelof
comfortvarysubstantially,dependingonthenationalityofthetouristandtherefore,accordingtothe
originatingcountries.
The flow of tourists could be mainly affected by extreme weather conditions as for the 2003
heatwaveinEurope.Thesevereclimateconditionscaused15.000deathsinFranceandwereresponsible
for major shifts in traditional tourist flows for this year away from the traditional resorts in the
MediterraneanandtowardsNorthernorWesternbeachlocations[15].
In this context, to assess the impacts of the significant meteorological parameters on tourism
activitiesinthecityofDjerba(southernGulfofGabès,Tunisia),theTourismSeasonalShiftIndexwas
used. This indicator is based on a threshold mean air temperature of 23 ◦C defining the start and
endofthetouristseason,calculatedusingfiveoutputCIRCEmodelsfortheperiod1950–2050[16].
The authors concluded that the simulated start and end dates suggest a further prolonging of the
summertouristseasonfortheperiod2021–2050forabout3daysearlierstart,13dayslaterendand
16dayslongerduration. Suchachangecouldbringbenefitstotourismespeciallyintheautumn.
RegionallyandpreciselyinthesouthernMediterranean,somestudiesrevealedthattheimpacts
ofhigherairtemperaturescouldleadtoagradualdecreaseinbeach-basedtourismduringsummer
(peakseason)andwouldincreasetheattractivenessduringshoulderseasons’tourism(springand
autumn)duetotheimprovementoftheclimaticsuitability[17,18].
Basicinformationabouttheinfluencethatweatherconditionshaveonkeytourismstakeholders
fromtouriststogovernmentslikeinAlgeriaisstillmissing[15].
However,inspiteofthat,thecountryisstillinternationallyoneofapreferreddestinationfor
foreigntouristsaswellasforAlgerianimmigrants. Accordingto“Tourismhighlights”reportofthe
World Organization of Tourism published in 2017 [19], Algeria was the fifth tourist destination in
Africain2015withmorethan1.7milliontourists.
In2017,thecountryhasattracted2,097,000internationaltouristarrivals. Thetotalcontribution
of travel and tourism was 6.8% of gross domestic product (GDP) of the country and by 2027,
internationaltouristarrivalsareforecasttototal4,396,000[20].
On the economic side, the climate component in Algeria is rarely introduced in the tourism
industry and is almost neglected in the elaboration of future strategies for this sector [21,22].
However,theknowledgeofthermalbioclimaticconditionswasdemonstratedasatooltohelpnot
onlyforexistingandplannedtourismresortsandareasbutalsoinprovidinginformationaboutzones
andperiodswheretouristsmaybenegativelyaffectedbyweatherandclimateconditions[23].
Inthiscontext,SahabiandMatzarakis[17]showtheimportanceofthephysiologicallyequivalent
temperature(PET)inemphasizingtheimpactsofclimateonhumanthermalcomfortandstressin
different seasonal and regional regimes over five (5) most attractive cities, representing different
climateandgeographicalconditionsofAlgeria.
From an economic perspective, Bigano et al. [24] examined the changes in international and
domestictourismupto2100usingtheHamburgTourismModelbasedontheIPCCSpecialReport
onEmissionsScenarios(SRES)scenarioA1B.Thismodelsimulatesin5-yeartimestepsthroughout
Atmosphere2018,9,250 3of18
the21stcenturyfor207countriesandterritories. ForAlgeria,theauthorsfoundthatinternational
arrivals would be reduced to almost half (−52.1%) by 2100 in the scenario with climate change
andthescenarioofeconomicandpopulationgrowthonly,comparedtoascenariowithoutclimate
change. ThesimulationswithintheIntegratedResearchProjectCIRCEovertheMediterraneanregion,
show that the impact on domestic tourism is perceived not quite as dramatic (−17.4%) and the
percentagedifferenceinexpenditureis−16.7%[25].
Bioclimatic features of the local environment are determinant factors for all forms of tourism
and the assessment of spatial differentiation of bioclimatic conditions in the local scale must be a
fundamentalpartofbioclimaticevaluation[2,26].
Amongtheindicesimplementingthisaspect,theClimate-Tourism-Information-Scheme(CTIS)
givesapictureofclimateandhumanthermalbioclimateinformationfortourismpurposesbasedon
thresholdsofsignificantparametersandtheirfrequencyofoccurrence. Theresultsprovidedthrough
CTIScouldbedirectlyusedforthepreparationoftouristsaboutadestinationandfortherecreation
activityforfurtherappropriateplanning[7,23,27,28].
AlgeriahasgreattourismpotentialbecauseofitsbeautifulMediterraneancoastline,thenatural
variability of its landscape, varieties of its natural ecosystems, historical and cultural wealth and
majesticandfascinatingSahara. Whateverthespecifictypeofholidayenjoyed,mostoutdoortourism
restsontheattractionofcertainrenewablebiophysicalresources,suchasforests,lakesorbeaches,
allofwhichareclimate-dependent[29].
In this scope, the aim of this research is to assess the frequency distribution of climate and
human bioclimate parameters at a 10-day and monthly timescale. This study is also intended to
demonstratethekeyroleoftheclimatefeaturesontourismactivitiesandtohighlighttheimportance
oftheemploymentofClimate-Tourism-Information-Schemes(CTIS)atahightimeresolutionasa
user-friendlytoolcontributinginthedevelopmentofthetourismindustryandrecreationactivitiesin
Algeria. Thearticlefocusesontheanalysisofthedecadaltrendevolutionoftheannualfrequencyof
daysfordifferenthumanthermalcomfortthresholdsbasedonPET,aswellasaestheticparameters
usedintheelaborationoftheCTIS.Morespecifically,theauthorselaborateanddiscussthePETofthe
cityofGhardaiaat10-dayandmonthlytimescales.
Inthispaper,thefirstsectionprovidesinformationonthestudyregionaswellasabriefclimate
classificationandstatisticsofeachcityisgiven. Then,themethodologyemployedisdescribedand
theimportanceoftheuseofhightime-scaleresolutionintheelaborationofPETaswellasCTISis
emphasized. Finally,CTISdiagramsareproducedandanalyzed. Thelastsectionisdevotedtothe
demonstrationofthebenefitsandinterestsofthistoolintheestablishmentofthefuturestrategiesin
thetourismsectorofthecountry.
2. StudyAreaandData
LocatedinnorthernAfricaandcomprisingabout2,400,000km2 ofland,morethanfour-fifthsof
whichisdesert,AlgeriaisthelargestcountryontheAfricancontinentandthe10thlargestcountryin
theworld(https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html). Withover
1400kmoflargelyunspoiledMediterraneancoastlineholding372beachesandafascinatinghinterland,
importantandrichhistoricalandculturalheritage,theAtlasmountain,magnificentSaharaDesert,
whichisthesecondlargestdesertintheworld,Algeriaisholdingconsiderablepotentialfortourism.
Thediversificationofitsnaturalareasandecologicalsystems,allowittoenjoydifferenttypes
ofclimates.
The northern part of Algeria is dominated by a Mediterranean-style climate and influenced
notablybythemid-latitudesatmosphericcirculationvariabilitysystems.Thetransitionalclimateofthe
northernhillsandmountainsduetotheelevation,affectsconsiderablytheclimateofhighlandsand
extensivehighplainsinthenorthernregions,whilethedesertclimateintereststhevastareaoccupied
bytheSahara.
Atmosphere2018,9,250 4of18
Forthepresentstudy,siximportantAlgeriancities,representingdifferentclimateregimesare
considered due to their natural, historical and cultural features. These cities are among the most
attractivedestinationsfortourismlocallyanduniversally: Twocoastalcities,Algiersinthecenter
and Oran in the west, Constantine—which is in the northeast highland—Bechar in the northwest
oftheSahara,Ghardaiainthenorth-centraloftheSaharaandTamanrassetintheextremesouthof
thecountry.
Algiers, the capital city with its popular sandy beaches based along the easterly turquoise
coast, has several historic monuments including socialist-era monuments, public buildings and
impressive-lookingRomanCatholicChurchsites“BasilicaofAlgiers”overlookingtheBayofAlgiers.
Thecapital’stopattractionsaretheoldcity“laCasbah”whichisdeclaredaWorldHeritageSiteby
UNESCO,theoldestbotanicgardensandthezoologicalpark.
Oran,Algeria’ssecondcity,isalivelyportwithplentyofhistory(SpanishandFrenchparticularly)
andalotofrhythms. AnumberofbuzzingbeachresortsarebuiltaroundtheOranregionalonga
beautifulMediterraneancoastline. Itisoneofthebestdestinationforthetouristsinthesummer.
Constantine,Algeria’sthirdbustlinginlandcity,isknownforitsspectacularlyspannedgorges
andis oneof thegrand urbanspectaclesof Algeria, madeby nature. Itsmuseums andimportant
historicalsitesaroundthecitymostlyattracttourists.
ThecityofGhardaiaislocatedinnorthern-centralAlgeriaintheSaharaDesert. TheM’zabvalley
ofGhardaiaisinscribedundertheUNESCOworldheritagelist. Thiscityisgiventhetitle“thepearlof
theoasis”andisoneofthemostvisitedtouristregionsforitsancientculturalheritageinsouthern
Algeria. Ghardaiaalsohasalotofpainters,researchers,historiansandanthropologiststoexploreits
richcultural,anthropologicalandarchitecturalsingularity.
Itsuniquearchitectureandred-mudbuildingsstuddedwithspikescharacterizeBechar,thelargest
oasisintheGrandErgOccidental. Considerableflowsofdomestictouristsfromallpartsofthecountry
spendtheirwinterholidaysinthewonderfulcityofTaghitinBechar,wheretraditionalNewYear’s
celebrationsareregularlyorganized.
The Hoggar Mountains are one of the national parks of the country, located in Tamanrasset.
This zone is a major location for biodiversity, including a number of relict species. The mountain
rangeTassilin’Ajjer(plateauoftherivers)—locatedinTamanrasset—isanareaofgreatarchaeological
interest. Withanimpressivecollectionofprehistoriccavepaintings,UNESCOclassifiesthemountain
rangeasa“worldheritagesite.”
Toconductthisstudy,historicalrecordsofdailymeteorologicaldata(exceptforprecipitation,
wherethedailytotalprecipitationamountisconsidered),fortheperiod(1986–2015)observedat12.00
UTCareused.Thechoiceofthistimeisdictatedbythefactthatatthistime,touristsaresupposedtobe
outsideandthereforearemoreexposedtosevereatmosphericconditions[2]. Thesedataareobtained
fromtheAlgerianMeteorologicalOffice, apartoftheWorldMeteorologicalOrganization(WMO)
regionalbasicsynopticnetwork. LocationofthesestationsonthemapofAlgeriaisshowninFigure1.
Furthermore,allmeteorologicaldatausedinthestudyarequalitycontrolledandhomogenized.
Thedescriptionoftheselectedstations,theannualaverageoftheminimumandmaximumair
temperatures,aswellasthemeanannualtotalprecipitationandtherespectiveclimateofeachcity
basedonthecriteriaofKöppen-Geigerclassification[7,30],isgiveninTable1.
Table 1. Geographic characteristics, annual average maximum and minimum air temperatures,
annualaveragetotalprecipitationrelativefortheperiod1986–2015forthe6selectedstationsand
climate classification of their associated cities according to Köppen-Geiger climate classification
criteria[30].CsareferstoawarmtemperateclimatewithdryandhotsummersandBwhtoadesert
andahotaridclimate.
Lat. Elev. Ann.Avg.Max. Ann.Avg.Min. Ann.Total KöppenandGeiger’s
Station/City (North) Long. (m) AirTemp.(◦C) AirTemp.(◦C) Precip.(mm) ClimateClassification
Algiers 36◦41(cid:48) 03◦13(cid:48)E 29 +24.1 +12.2 595.1 Csa
Oran 35◦38(cid:48) 00◦36(cid:48)W 91 +23.9 +12.8 356.1 Csa
Atmosphere2018,9,250 5of18
Table1.Cont.
Lat. Elev. Ann.Avg.Max. Ann.Avg.Min. Ann.Total KöppenandGeiger’s
Station/City (North) Long. (m) AirTemp.(◦C) AirTemp.(◦C) Precip.(mm) ClimateClassification
Constantine 36◦16(cid:48) 06◦37(cid:48)E 692 +22.5 +9.8 509.6 Csa
Ghardaia 32◦23(cid:48) 03◦47(cid:48)E 468 +28.3 +16.2 80.5 Bwh
Bechar 31◦39(cid:48) 02◦15(cid:48)W 816 +27.8 +15.2 109.3 Bwh
Tamanrasset 22◦47(cid:48) 05◦31(cid:48)E 1377 +29.3 +15.3 55.2 Bwh

Figure1.Positionofthesixselec1t edAlgeriancitiesforthestudy.

3. Method
As an integral assessment diagram, CTIS provides a detailed picture of the various factors
influencinglocalclimate[31]. Thesefactorscandifferfromoneclimateregiontoanother. Theselection
ofthresholdsusedfortheelaborationoftheCTISisbasedonbibliographicreferences[13]andare
summarized in Table 2. In addition, the thresholds used can be different for climate regions and
culturesandcanbeadjustedwiththerelevantones[27,32].
Table2.Thresholdsusedforclimateandbioclimateparametersrelevantfortourismandreferencesin
theelaborationoftheClimate-Tourism-Information-Scheme(CTIS)[23].
Element ThresholdApplied Reference
Coldstress PET<4◦C MayerandMatzarakis,1999[36]
Heatstress PET>35◦C MatzarakisandMayer,1996[32]
Thermalacceptability 18◦C<PET<29◦C Matzarakis,2007[27]
Sunshine Cloudiness<5/8 Gómez,2004[37]
Windvelocity speedv>8m/s Gómez,2004[37]
Fog (humidity)RH>93% Matzarakis,2007[27]
Dryday Precipitation<1mm Matzarakis,2007[27]
Wetday Precipitation>5mm Matzarakis,2007[27]
Sultriness Vaporpressure>18hPa Matzarakis,2007[27]
Atmosphere2018,9,250 6of18
On this basis and to assess CTIS, the most relevant following climate aesthetic, physical and
thermalparametersthatmightinfluencerecreationandleisureinAlgeriaarethereforeconsidered:
humanthermalcomfort,heatandcoldhumanstress,sunshine,fog,sultrinessandprecipitation[2,27].
OneofthemajorpertinentparametersintheelaborationofCTISisthePET.ThePETreflectsthe
gradeandlevelofhumancomfortundertheinfluenceofmeteorologicalandthermo-physiological
variables[33].ThefrequencyofacertainnumberofPETclassesquantifiesthermallysuitableconditions
forleisureandrecreationandgivesinformationaboutcoldandheatstress. Inthiscontext,thehuman
thermalcomfortacceptability,heatandcoldhumanstressaredepictedbyPETthresholdsrepresenting
different grades of thermal perception by humans according to Matzarakis and Mayer [23] and
based on the RayMan Pro model [13,34] (Table 3). This model employs observed air temperature,
relativehumidity,windspeedat1.1mheightandcloudcoverasaproxyvaluefortheglobalradiation.
WithinCTIS,thesunshineisquantifiedthroughthecloudiness(nebulosity).
Table3.Rangesofphysiologicallyequivalenttemperature(PETin◦C)fordifferentgradesofthermal
perceptionbyhumansaccordingtoMatzarakisandMayer[32]withinternalheatproduction:80W
andheattransferresistanceoftheclothing:0.9clo.
PET(◦C) ThermalPerception GradeofPhysiologicalStress
<4 Verycold Extremecoldstress
4–8 Cold Strongcoldstress
8–13 Cool Moderatecoldstress
13–18 Slightlycool Slightcoldstress
18–23 Comfortable Nothermalstress
23–29 Slightlywarm Slightheatstress
29–35 Warm Moderateheatstress
35–41 Hot Strongheatstress
>41 Veryhot Extremeheatstress
However, a PET ranging between 18 ◦C and 23 ◦C indicates comfortable conditions while
thermallyacceptablebioclimateconditionsrefertoaPETbetween18and29◦C.
The humidity conditions are analyzed in terms of vapor pressure and relative humidity.
Thesultrinessemphasizestheimportanceoftheairtemperatureandtheatmosphericmoisturewhilea
foggydayisdeclaredwhentherelativehumidityisequaltoorabove93%. Thedaywithwindvelocity
exceeding8m/sisconsideredasstormyandforwhichtheobservedprecipitationislessthan1mmis
classifiedasdry;ontheotherhand,itiscategorizedaswet,whenthisamountismorethan5mm.
Moreover, in addition to the above-mentioned parameters, another relevant and pertinent
meteorologicalparameteraffectingrecreationandoutdooractivitiesinSaharancities,aresandordust
winds. Toassesstheevolutionofthisclimateelement,monthlymeannumberofdayswithsandor
dustwindsobservedinBechar,GhardaiaandTamanrassetstationsiscalculatedduringtheperiodof
thestudy(1986–2015).
Representation of these thresholds, in all cases here at 12.00 UTC is done as frequencies of
occurrence. Thesefrequencyclassesexpressedasaratearetreatedona10-daytimeresolutionand
presentedforeachmonth. Infact, theuseoffrequenciesofclimateandhuman-biometeorological
valuesandvariablesbasedontheseveralfacetsofclimateintourismisaneasilyunderstandableand
all-embracingapproach[23].
In this case study, the following positive conditions for tourism and recreation activities are
considered: Humanthermalcomfortacceptabilityforwhich18◦C<PET<29◦C,nebulosity<5octas
anddailytotalrainfalldry<1mm. Onthecontrary,therestofparametersareassessednegatively.
The high frequency of the indicated parameters permits a positive effect on tourism activity
and the higher the probability of occurrence is, the more favorable conditions for tourism are.
Consequently,fewerrecurrencesoftheseparameterscorrespondtoextremelypoorconditions[35],
leadingconsequentlytoalessflowoftourists.
Atmosphere2018,9,250 7of18
4. Results
4.1. PETBioclimateDiagramat10-DayandMonthlyTimescaleResolutionforGhardaia
ThedailybioclimateconditionsbasedonPETvaluescalculatedat12.00UTCfortheperiodfrom
1986to2015isestablishedforGhardaia. ThePEToftheremainingcitiescanbefoundinthestudyof
SahabiandMatzarakis[7].
Separated PET evolution diagrams elaborated at monthly and 10-day timescale according to
Matzarakis[23]areelaboratedandcompared. Inordertoevaluatethedifferentgradesofthermal
Atmosphere 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18
perceptionbyhumans,Figure2a,billustratethecumulatedrelativefrequenciesforPETvalueswithin
the10claspseersceopftitohne brym huamlpanesr,c Feigputrieo 2na,abc ilclousrtdraitneg thteo cuTmabullaete3d. rTelhateivleo fwreqeustenPcEieTs fovra PlEuTe sva(l<ue8s ◦wCithfionr coldand
verycoldtthhee r1m0 callaspseesr coef pthteiormna)la preercreepctoiornd aecdcodrduinrign tgo Tthabelew 3i.n Ttheer l(oDweecste PmEbT evra–luFeesb (r<u8 a°Cry f)orw ciotlhd alensds than10%
very cold thermal perception) are recorded during the winter (December–February) with less than
ofthedays. Themajorityoftheremainingdaysinthisseasonbelongtothecoolandslightlycoolclass
10% of the days. The majority of the remaining days in this season belong to the cool and slightly cool
withaboutcl6as0s% w.ith about 60%.

Figure 2. Bioclimatic diagram for Ghardaia for the period of 1986–2015; frequencies (%) of the nine
Figure2. BioclimaticdiagramforGhardaiafortheperiodof1986–2015;frequencies(%)ofthenine
different PET thermal grades perception classes for Monthly timescale resolution (a) and 10-day time
differentPETthermalgradesperceptionclassesforMonthlytimescaleresolution(a)and10-daytime
interval period (b) of the mean year.
intervalperiod(b)ofthemeanyear.
However, about 30% of the days with comfortable human comfort conditions (18 °C < PET < 23
°C) are observed in March and April. The hot and very hot days (PET > 35 °C and PET > 41 °C) are
However, about 30% of the days with comfortable human comfort conditions
mainly observed for the period from the beginning of May to end September. The maximum rate of
(18◦C<PEthTes<e tw23o c◦lCas)seasr ies oobbsesrevrevd eind Juilny aMnda Arcuhguastn rdeacAhipnrgi 9l.9%T ohf edahyso. tIna tnerdmsv oefr ryatihngo tdidstariybusti(oPnE, T>35◦C
andPET>th4e1 av◦eCra)gae rvealmueas ionf lPyETo fbosre Grhvaerddafiao prrtehseentpeedr aito mdofnrtohlmy tetmhepobrealg sicnalne iFnigguoref 2Ma sahyowtos theantd thSe eptember.
percentage of the comfortable thermal perception in February is 17%. When considering a 10-day
ThemaximumrateofthesetwoclassesisobservedinJulyandAugustreaching99%ofdays. Interms
timescale resolution Figure 2b, the repartition within this month shows that this class is rather
ofratingdistribution,theaveragevaluesofPETforGhardaiapresentedatmonthlytemporalscale
observed in 21% of the days during the mid-February and last 10 days but only in 10% of days in the
Figure 2absehgionwninsgt. hThaits ctlhaess ips ehrocweenvtear goebseorfvetdh ien Mcoamy rfeospretactbivleelyt ahte 1r2m% aofl dpaeysr cdeupritnigo tnhei fnirsFt 1e0b druayasr y is 17%.
Whenconasnidd eornilny g3%a f1o0r -thdea ryemtiamineinsgc paeleriorde.s Hooluwteivoenr, Ffoirg tuher eve2rby ,htoht teherrempaalr pteitricoepntiwoni tPhEiTn > t4h1i °sCm anodn thshows
during May, this class is observed during 11% of the days in first 10 days when it is 21% and 29% for
thatthisclassisratherobservedin21%ofthedaysduringthemid-Februaryandlast10daysbutonly
the second and third 10 days, respectively.
Atmosphere 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18
this month (daily total amount of precipitation >5 mm) appears in 6% of days for both Algiers and
Oran. The sultriness during May is manifesting in Algiers for 33% of days and in Oran for 16%.
However, the maximum of manifestation of comfortable conditions are recorded in Constantine
in April with 54% of days, followed by November with 52%. When referring to the heat stress thermal
perception occurrence (PET > 35 °C) in this city, April exhibits 9% against less than 1% for November.
The rates of all remaining elements are roughly identical: in April, the number of days with
Atmosphere2018,9,250 8of18
nebulosity less than 5 octas constitutes 44% of the days (42% for November), the daily amount rainfall
less than 1 mm and more than 5 mm is respectively observed for 77% and 11% of days (against 79%
in1a0n%d 9o%f dina yNsoinvetmhebebre)g. Finonr ibnogt.hT mhiosnctlhass, sfoisg hcoowndeivtieornos basreer rveecdoridneMd ainy 2r%es poef cdtaivyes,l ywahtil1e2 t%hoosfe doaf ys
dusruinltgritnheessfi rresmta1i0n dnaeygsligainbdle.o nly3%fortheremainingperiod. However,fortheveryhotthermal
perceptBioencaPuEsTe o>f 4t1he◦iCr calinmdadteu rpirnogpeMrtaieys,,t haidsdcilnags stois soabnsde/rdvuesdt wduinrdinsg, t1h1e% moofstt hpeerdtainyesnitn bfiiorcsltim10adtiac ys
whpeanraitmiset2e1r%s caonndsid2e9r%edf oforrt hthees eeclaobnodraatniodn tohfi rtdhe1 0CTdIaSy fso,rr etshpee Scatihvaerlayn. cities are PET, wind velocity
anMd woreeto dvaeyr,si,n reSseppetcetmivbeleyr. andatamonthlytimescale,PET>41◦Cisobservedatanaverageof46%
ofdaysB.eTchhiasrr awtiethis 5n6o%t foafi rdlyaydsi shtarivbinugte PdEwTi tbheitnwteheins m18o °nCth aantd1 209-d °aCy, tnimeitehsecra lhee.aTt hniosrc lcaoslsd isstrraesths er
conditions occur, less than 9% of stormy days, only 1% of wet days and a lowest frequency of
observedfor66%ofthedaysduringthefirst10dayswhileitisforalmostthehalf(30%)forthelast
sand/dust phenomenon (1.4 days), December is the most favorable month for tourism. However, the
oneinGhardaia.
highest rate of thermal acceptable conditions class is observed during the mid and end of November
TheoutlineddetailsofthetimeevolutionofPETclasses,givenbythe10-daytemporalresolution,
for more than 60% of days where only 9% of the days in this month are qualified stormy.
consequentlyofferawidevarietyofoptionsforthechoiceofappropriateperiodsthroughouttheyear
The thermally acceptable bioclimatic conditions in Ghardaia are observed in November and
inaccordancewiththetypeofdesirabletourismandatanaveragedurationofstayfortourists(which
March for 50% of days. However, with 8% of the days with PET > 35 °C (hot and very hot days) and
isnotnecessarilythemonth).
the lowest frequency of stormy days (9%) and 2.4 days with sand/dust winds, November could be
the most appropriate month for visiting Ghardaia.
4.2. CTISDiagrams
Thermal acceptability class in Tamanrasset is observed in about 70% of days during both
DeTchemeibnefro ramnadt ioJannduearryiv, edwhtherroe uhgoht CtThIeSrmisapl eprfeorrcmepetdioinn tceornmdsitioofnfsr eqanude nwcieest odfaoycsc ufrrereqnuceencoifesth e
diftfherreonutghcloimuta tthoelsoeg itcwaol amnodnbthios calirme raatroel o(g<1ic%a)l. pWarinamd espteeresd. Agre1a0t-edra tyhatenm 8p mor/sa lorcecsuorlsu otino nonolfy C6T%I Soff or
thedsaiyxss ienl eDcteecdemcibteiers ainsdi l8lu%s tirna JtaenduianryF,i gwuhreen3 da–ufs.t wind phenomenon occurrence is negligible.

(a)

(b)
Figure3.Cont.
Atmosphere2018,9,250 9of18
Atmosphere 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)
Figure 3. Climate-Tourism-Information-Scheme between 1986 and 2015: (a) for Algiers; (b) for Oran;
Figure3.Climate-Tourism-Information-Schemebetween1986and2015:(a)forAlgiers;(b)forOran;
(c) for Constantine; (d) for Ghardaia; (e) for Bechar and (f) for Tamanrasset.
(c)forConstantine;(d)forGhardaia;(e)forBecharand(f)forTamanrasset.
Atmosphere2018,9,250 10of18
The PET within the elaborated CTIS diagram is analyzed for three levels of thresholds
criteriarepresentingthreegradesofthermalhumancomfort: Thermalacceptableconditionsgrade,
reflecting the bioclimate situation for which PET is ranging between 18 ◦C and 29 ◦C. The one
wherePETisexceeding35◦CmaterializesheatstressconditionsandthecasewherePETis<4◦C,
indicatescoldstressclass.
InAlgiers(Figure3a)andOran(Figure3b), duetothemid-latitudeweatherregime, thermal
acceptableconditions(18◦C<PET<29◦C)referringtofavorableconditionsfortourismandrecreation
activitiestakeplacenotablyfromspringtouptobeginningofsummer(MarchtoearlydaysofJune),
thenfromOctobertothemid-Novemberinmorethan50%ofthedays. Themaximumscoreforboth
citiesisobservedduringthebeginningandmid-May(>70%).
Beinganinlandcity,andbecauseofthecontinentalandelevationeffect,thecomfortableconditions
inConstantine(Figure3c)lastshorterwhiletheyoccuronlyinMarchandAprilinspringandfrom
theendofOctobertomid-NovemberinAutumn. Thepeakinthiscityisobservedduringthefirst
two10-dayofApril(54%). Furthermore,thecharacteristicsofthedesertclimatearemorepronounced
inGhardaia(Figure3d),Bechar(Figure3e)andTamanrasset(Figure3f). Thecomfortconditionsin
thesecitiesaremainlyperceivedfromtheendofautumn(November)toearlyspring(March)inmore
than50%ofdays,leadingtoidealconditionsduringthisperiod. ForTamanrasset,thecomfortable
humanthermalclassisdominantduringthesecond10daysofJanuary(79%),whileitisobservedin
mid-NovemberrespectivelyforBechar(65%)andGhardaia(59%).
Duringsummer,theAzores-highpressuresystemdominatestheatmosphericcirculationofthe
temperate latitudes, extending to the northern region of Algeria. This system affects strongly the
humanbioclimateandexacerbatesthehotthermalperceptionconditions(PET>35◦C)forabout70%
ofdaysinAlgiersandOran,reachingmorethan90%inJulyandAugustforConstantine. Thestrong
heat stress conditions persist about 4 months during the summer (June to September) in Bechar,
GhardaiaandTamanrasset. Becauseofcontinentalandelevationeffectsandwithapproximately8%of
days,Constantineistheonlycitythatexperiencescoldstressthermalperception(PET<4◦C)during
thelast10daysofDecemberandthefirst10daysofJanuary.
TheatmosphericcirculationovertheMediterraneanregionduringthesummerismostcommonly
characterizedbyweakwindsatthesurfaceandsubsidenceofairatmospherefromthehightroposphere.
Thiscirculationbringsoftenthen,clearskiesastheformationofcloudsisinhibited. Thisphenomenon
accentuatestheoccurrenceofsunshinedaystoreachover80%inAlgiers,OranaswellasConstantine.
Theseconditionsleadconsequentlytoanelevationontherateofdrydaysduringthisseason(90%)over
thesethreecities. However,fortheSaharancities(Bechar,GhardaiaandTamanrasset),almostmore
than70%ofdayswithnebulositylessthan5octasarerecordedthroughthewholeyearwithapeakon
theearlyJuly(90%).
Because of their proximity to the Mediterranean Sea, and engendered by high water vapor
pressurecausedbyexcessiveairtemperatures,theseverestdegreeofsultrinessremarkablyoccursin
summerinOranandAlgiers(closeto90%). Moreover,duetoitshighaltitudeanditsdistancefrom
theMediterraneanSea,Constantineexhibits,forthesameseason,lessthan23%ofdaysintermsof
sultriness. ThisparameterishoweverrarelyrecordedinBecharandGhardaia(about8%duringthe
earlySeptember)andquasi-non-existentinTamanrasset.
Naturally, advection and frontal fog (considered here when relative humidity is exceeding
93%) take place predominantly during winter months in the northern cities respectively with a
maximumduringthesecond10daysofDecemberandJanuary(respectively5%ofdaysforAlgiers
and 3% for Oran). Exceptionally, during the end of September, Oran shows 3% of days of fog
occurrence. This phenomenon appears notably in this season due to the presence of two major
wetlandssurroundingOrancity: The“Sebkhad’Oran”inthesouth-west—whichisasalineendorheic
systemofanareaequivalentto568.7km2—andthe“Salined’Arzew”withanareaof57.8km2 [38]
locatedattheeast. Earlyonsummermornings,theconditionsinbothwetlandsfavordewwhenair
temperaturedropsbelowthedewpointtemperatureatnightandcoldaircollectsinthelowestareas,