Pyrrolizidine alkaloids in medicinal plants of Mongolia, Nepal and Tibet

18 Pages·2009·0.21 MB·English

REVIEW
PharmazeutischesInstitutderRheinischenFriedrichs-Wilhelms-Universität,Bonn,Germany
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids in medicinal plants of Mongolia, Nepal and Tibet
E.Roeder,H.Wiedenfeld
ReceivedMay28,2009,acceptedJune12,2009
Prof.Dr.Dr.h.c.E.Roeder,PharmazeutischesInstitutderUniversität,AnderImmenburg4,D-53121Bonn,Germany
[email protected]
DedicatedtoProf.Dr.Dr.h.c.H.J.Rothontheoccasionofhis80thbirthday.
Pharmazie64:699–716(2009) doi:10.1691/ph.2009.9653
Pyrrolizidinealkaloids(PAs)arewidelydistributedinmanyplantfamilies.Mostofthemarehazardousfor
humansanddomesticanimals.PAalsooccurinmanymedicinalplants.Thisisofimportancebecausein
Westerncountriestheuseofplantsorpreparationsofthemismoreandmoreincreasing.Especiallyplants
oftheTraditionalChineseMedicine(TCM)haveincreasedinpopularity.Similarly,peoplearealsofocused
onmedicinalplantsfromothertraditionalmedicines.NowadaystheTraditionalMongolianMedicine(TMM),
theTraditionalNepaleseMedicine(TNM),andtheTibetanSystemofMedicine(TSM)arebecomingmore
andmoreofinterest.Inthosecountriesapplicationofthosephytopharmaceuticsisbasedonitstraditional
usebutascientificinvestigation–especiallyforpossibletoxicside-effects–isoftenmissing.Thispaper
givesanoverviewontraditionallyusedplantsfromNepal,MongoliaandTibetwithrespecttoitscontent
oritspossiblecontentofpyrrolizidinealkaloids.
1. Introduction naluseandD4forexternalapplication.TheGermanregulations
also require that these products are not prescribed for women
Inthemiddleofthelastcenturymanyepisodesofhumanand whoarepregnantorbreast-feedingandtheymusthaveawarn-
animalintoxication,resultingfromconsumptionofcertainplant ing label to that effect. Switzerland and Austria have banned
generabelongingtothefamiliesAsteraceae,Leguminosaeand all pyrrolizidine alkaloid-containing herbal medicines and the
Boraginaceae,wereshowntobecausedbypyrrolizidinealka- Netherlandshasaregulationlimitingpyrrolizidinealkaloidsto
loids(Schoental1959;Bulletal.1968). 1microgramperkgoffood(gFDH1992).
Recognitionofthismodeofhumanpyrrolizidinealkaloidintox- Pyrrolizidine alkaloids form a large group of plant secondary
icationwasfollowedbyinvestigationsintoherbalteasandtheir chemicalsthatoccurinanestimated5%offloweringplants.
connectionwithliverdiseaseinJamaicaandotherpartsofthe They are made of two parts, a basic amino alcohol moiety,
West Indies in the 1950s. The use of herbal teas made from referred to as a necine, and one or more acids (necic acids)
pyrrolizidinealkaloid-producingplantstotreatminorillnesses thatesterifythealcoholgroupsofthenecines(Bulletal.1968;
isalsorecognisedasacauseofliverdiseaseinpartsofAfricaand Smithetal.1981;IPCS1988;Rizk1991;Hartmannetal.1995).
other tropical and subtropical countries. Though pyrrolizidine 1,2-Dehydropyrrolizidine ester alkaloids and their N-oxides,
alkaloid poisoning is more common in developing countries, with 1,2-unsaturated necines, i.e. esters of supinidine,
where traditional herbal medicines are widely used, industri- retronecine, heliotridine, crotanecine and otonecine are car-
alised countries such as the USA and UK have also reported cinogenic,mutagenic,genotoxic,fetototoxicandteratogenicto
pyrrolizidinealkaloidintoxicationsfromconsumptionofherbal varyingdegrees(Culvenoretal.1976;Huxtable1989;Fuetal.
medicines. Germany, Switzerland and Austria, where it was 2001,2002,2004;Xiaetal.2006).
claimed in the 1980s by some herbal medicine practitioners Some of the 1,2-dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids (e.g. fulvine
thattraditionalmedicinalplantshadtherapeuticbenefitswithout and monocrotaline) are also pneumotoxic. Pyrrolizidine alka-
theundesirablesideeffectsreportedforothermedicines,have loids without the 1,2-double bond, those with platynecine,
also reported fatal cases of pyrrolizidine alkaloid intoxication hastanecine, rosmarinecine and isoretronecanol do not show
from consumption of traditional herbal products that contain thesetoxicities(Mattocksetal.1971).
pyrrolizidinealkaloids. The mechanism by which 1,2-dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids
In 1992, after several years of investigation, the German Fed- causetoxicityinmammalsiswellestablished(Mattocks1968;
eral Department of Health promulgated regulations severely Culvenoretal.1969;Jagoetal.1970;Culvenoretal.1971).
restricting manufacture and sale of all herbal medicines con- Following ingestion and absorption from the gut, cytochrome
taining pyrrolizidine alkaloids with a 1,2-unsaturated necine P-450mono-oxygenaseisozymes,locatedprimarilyintheliver,
moietythatconferscarcinogenicityandhepatotoxicity.Exempt introduceahydroxylgrouponC-3orC-8,adjacenttothenitro-
are pyrrolizidine alkaloid-containing pharmaceuticals with no genintheunsaturatedring(Fig.1:Ia/Ib).
more than 1 microgram of 1,2-dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids The resultant carbinolamines are unstable and dehydrate to
per daily oral dose or less than 100 micrograms in the case producethedidehydro-pyrrolizidine(dihydropyrrolizine).The
ofatopicallyappliedproduct.Theseregulationsalsoapplyto metabolites are no longer alkaloids because the electrons of
homeopathicpharmaceuticalshavingpotencyuptoD6forinter- the formerly basic nitrogen are delocalised in the aromatic
Pharmazie 64 (2009) 11 699
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R2 R1 CO R2 R1C O R2 R1 CO
O C O O C O O C O
O CH2 O O CH2 O CH2
N N R R=H:Platyphylline
CH3 N R=OH:Rosmarinine
O CR2 R1 COO O CR2 R1 COO O CR2 R1COO Enzymaticoxidation
O CH2 O OH CH2 O O CH2
IaN OH INb N R2 R1 CO
O C O
OH CH
R2 R1 CO 2R
O C O N
O CH2
N Fig.2: MetabolismofsaturatedPAs
II
modification to genetic material raises expectations that they
CH2 willbehaveasgenotoxiccarcinogensinvivoandanumberof
1,2-dehydropyrrolizidinealkaloidshavebeenshowntobecar-
N cinogenic,mutagenicandgenotoxicaswellasteratogenicand
III
fetotoxicinexperimentalanimals,primarilyrats.
Metabolism of saturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids (necic
Fig.1: Metabolismofnon-saturatedPAs
acid esters of platynecine, hastanecine, rosmarinecine and
isoretronecanol)bymammalshasnotyetbeenextensivelystud-
ied,inpartbecausethesaturatedesteralkaloidsandtheirnecines
system. Dehydration is driven by conjugation of the newly
donotdisplaymammaliantoxicity.
formed double bond with the 1,2-double bond and by subse-
While 1,2-dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids are metabolised by
quentspontaneouslyrearrangementofthedienetothearomatic
liver P-450 isozymes into hazardous dihydropyrrolizines (e.g.
dihydropyrrolizine(“pyrrolic”)system(Fig.1:II).
II,Fig.1)withapyrrolicring,saturatedpyrrolizidinealkaloids
If the alcohols at C7 and C9 are esterified carbonium ion for-
producenon-toxic,metabolites.Thesaturatedalkaloidsplaty-
mation is greatly facilitated because the acid moiety provides
phyllineandrosmarinine(Fig.2),forexample,areconvertedby
a good leaving group (Fig. 1: III). In the case of didehydro-
livermicrosomesintopyrrolicmetaboliteswithanaromaticring
pyrrolizidineswithunesterifiedhydroxylsatC7and/orC9(e.g.
(Mattocksetal.1971).Thesearedevoidofbiologicalalkylating
thedehydronecines)formationofcarboniumionsatC-7andC-
propertiesandareheightshepatotoxicnorcarcinogenic.
9isnotasspontaneousbutcanbefacilitated,asforanalogous
WherasinindustrialisedcountriesintoxicationsbyPAcontain-
benzylic hydroxyls, by protonation of the hydroxyls leading
ingplantmaterialarerareandfurthermoretheuseofmedical
to loss of H O. (Culvenor et al. 1971). In vivo, following the
2 plants containing PA is restricted by state laws, in developing
generation of didehydropyrrolizidine metabolites the C-7 and
countriesPApoisoningiscommon.
C-9 carbonium ions that are formed react rapidly and sponta-
InMongolia,TibetandNepalseveralmedicalplantsaretradi-
neouslywithnucleophiliccentreson,forexample,vitalproteins
tionallyusedwhichhavealreadybeenreportedtocontainPAs,
and nucleosides. In the case of proteins, mercapto, hydroxyl
orwhichareusedinspitetocontainthosetoxins.
andaminogroupsareattackedandtheaminogroupsofpurine
In the following part these medical plants with their common
and pyrimidine bases are alkylated in the case of DNA and
namesandtheindicationofusearelisted.Toxicityaspectsare
RNA. The resulting products, proteins and nucleosides with
discussed.
dehydropyrrolizineadducts,cannotperformtheirnormal,often
vital functions. In the case of DNA, mutations are a possible
outcome.Theextremelyhighchemicalreactivityofthedidehy-
2. Mongolian,NepaleseandTibetanplantcontaining
dropyrrolizidinemetabolitescausesconsiderabletissuedamage
pyrrolizidinealkaloids
in the liver and disruptions to normal biochemical processes,
resultinginthepathologyandliverdamageobserved. 2.1. PA-containingmedicinalplantsofthefamily
There are three dose-related levels of poisoning of humans Orchidaceae(TribeVandeae)
andanimalsby1,2-dehydropyrrolizidineesteralkaloids:acute,
The Orchidaceae is the largest family in the plant kingdom,
sub-acute and chronic. These levels of toxicity can also be
containing30000until35000species.Pyrrolizidinealkaloids
sequential,progressingfromacutetosub-acute,andfinallycaus-
arefoundonlyinafewspeciesandarenon-toxic.
ingirreversible,chronic(long-lasting,irreversible)toxiceffects
(McLean1970;Petersonetal.1983;IPCS1988;Huxtable1989;
Prakashetal.1999;Stegelmeieretal.1999;Fuetal.2001,2002,
2.1.1. VandachristataLindley,(syn.V.alpinaWallichex
2004;Xiaetal.2006;Wangetal.2005).
Lindley,syn.AeridescristatumWallichexHookerfil.)
The metabolic conversion of 1,2-dehydropyrrolizidine ester
alkaloidsintostronglyalkylatingdihydropyrrolizineesters(car- V. christata is a medicinal plant of Nepal (Manandhar 2002,
bonium ions) and demonstration that these cause chemical Ioshietal.2006)[Nep.:Bhyagutephul].
700 Pharmazie 64 (2009) 11
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Distribution: This plant, an epiphytic orchid, grows in central 2.2.3. CrotalariacytisoidesRoxb.exDC.(syn.C.
andeasternNepalat1300–2300m,commonontreetrunks,and psoralioidesD.Don.,syn.PriotropiscytisoidesWhigte&
branches,alsoinnorthernandeasternIndia,BhutanandTibet. Arnott)
Use: A paste of the roots is applied to boils, it is also used to
C.cytisoidesisamedicinalplantofNepal(Rajbhandari2001;
treatdislocatedbones.
Manandhar2002,2003;Singhetal.2003)[Nep.:Bakhreghans,
Leavesareusedasexpectorant.Allpartsoftheplantcontainthe
Silsile].
alkaloidacetyllaburnine(7).(Lindströmetal.1969,Brandänge
Distribution: Growing throughout Nepal at 1200–2200 m in
etal.1973).
open,rockyplaces,alsoinnorthernIndia,Bhutan,West-China.
Use:Juiceofleavesisappliedtotreatcutsandwounds.Alka-
2.1.2. VandateresLindley,(syn.Dendrobiumteres loids are unknown, but the plant is belonging to the genus
Roxburgh). Crotalariaandmanyplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids.
Alsoexternaluseisnotrecommended.
V.teresisamedicinalplantofNepal(Manandhar2002,Ioshi
etal.2006)[Nep.:Harjor,Thurjo].
Distribution: In eastern and central Nepal at 1400–2300m on
2.2.4. CrotalariaferrugineaGrahamexBenth.
treetrunksandbranches;alsoinnorthernandeasternIndia.
Use:Apasteoftheplantsisappliedtotreatdislocatedbones. C.ferrugineaisamedicinalplantinNepal(Rajbhandari2001;
Alkaloids are unknown. Compare with Vanda christata. Pre- Manandhar 2002, 2003; Singh et al. 2003; Baral et al. 2006)
sumablyithassaturatednon-toxicpyrrolizidinealkaloids. [Nep.:Junbgraban].
Distribution: In eastern and central Nepal at 1400–1900m in
opensunnyplaces,India,southeasternAsia,China,Malaysia.
2.2. PA-containingmedicinalplantsofthefamily Use:Juiceofrootisgiventotreatfever,juiceofleafisapplied
Fabaceae(TribeCrotalarieae) totreatcutsandwounds.
Alkaloidsareunknown,butthisplantisbelongingtothegenus
The genus Crotalaria, subtribe Crotalarieae (Fabaceae) con-
Crotalariaandmanyplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids.
tainsover600speciesdistributedprincipallythroughouttropical
Internaluseisnotrecommended.
andsubtropicalareasoftheworld.Manyofthisspeciescontain
pyrrolizidinealkaloidswhicharetoxictolivestock.
2.2.5. CrotalariajunceaL.
2.2.1. CrotalariaalataBuch.-Ham.exD.Don,(syn.C. C. juncea is a medicinal plant in Nepal (Anon. 1970;
bialataauct.nonSchrank) Rajbhandari 2001; Manandhar 2002, 2003; Singh et al. 2003;
Baral et al. 2006) [Nep.: Chin chine, Chikachhike san, Engl.:
C. alata is a medicinal plant of Nepal (Rajbhandari 2001;
Sun-hemp].
Manandhar 2002, 2003; Singh et al. 2003; Baral et al. 2006)
Distribution: It is a perennial subshrub-like herb growing
[Nep.: Boksi baja, Thulo chheke, Singe-singe, Singesinge-N,
throughout Nepal to about 1300 m, and is cultivated through-
Chhimchine].
out the foothills of Himalaya to Sri Lanka, and in the east
Distribution: This plant, a subshrub, grows throughout Nepal
tropics.
toabout2000m,alsoinnorthernIndia,Bhutan,southeastern
Use: Leafes are refrigerant, demulcent, emetic and purgative,
Asia,China.
alsousedtopurifyblood.
Use:ItisamedicinalplantinNepal.Rootjuiceorplantjuiceis
Seeds are emmenagogue, poisonous to livestock. As heal-
giventorelievefeverandmalarialfever,andincaseofnocturnal
ers know, the plant especially the seeds are toxic. The plant
discharge.
containsinallpartsintegerrimine(53),senecionine(57),seneci-
Theplantcontainsinallpartsespeciallyintheseedsmonocro-
phylline(60),riddelliine(61),trichodesmine(77),andjunceine
taline(74),andspectabiline(76)(Sharmaetal.1965;Williams
(78). (Adams et al. 1956; Sharma et al. 1965; Prakash et al.
etal.1987).
1985; Zhang et al. 1985; Williams et al. 1987; Xiuhong
It should not longer be used as a traditional medicinal plant
et al. 2005). The plant should not to be used for medicinal
becauseofitshighalkaloidcontentandthehepatotoxiceffect
purposes.
ofthealkaloids.
2.2.2. CrotalariaalbidaHeyneexRoth.(syn.C.linifolia 2.2.6. CrotalariapallidaAiton(syn.C.mucronataDesv.)
Lin.fil.,C.formosanaMatsum.exIto&Matsum.,syn.C.
C.pallidaisamedicinalplantinNepal(Rai2004;Baraletal.
montanaRoxb.)
2006)[Nep.:Chhin-chhine,Engl.:Sun-hemp,StreakedRattle-
C.albidaisamedicinalplantofNepal(Anon.1970;Manandhar pod]. It is also a medicinal plant in China [Xiang ling cao]
2002,2003;Singhetal.2003;Baraletal.2006)[Nep.:Putali (Roeder2000).Distribution:Thisplantisaperennialsubshrub-
phul,Bhendiphul,Bheriphul,Bhehediphul,Engl.:Rattlebox]. like herb which is introduced in Asia, Malaysia in tropical
ItisalsoamedicinalplantinChina[Chin.:Huanghuadiding] Africa,nativeofCentralandTropicalAmerica.Therootcauses
(Roeder2000). vomiting.Leavesareusefulindiarrhoea,dysenteryandbleed-
Distribution:ItisanannualplantandgrowsthroughoutNepal ing disorders. Leaf paste is applied to swellings, leprosy, and
andChina,at1400–2100monopenhillsides,alsoinnorthern otherskindiseases;pasteofseedscuresulcers.
India,Bhutan,southeasternAsia,Taiwan. Use in eastern Nepal: Root paste (one teaspoon ful) is drunk
Use:Juiceoftherootisgiventotreatmalarialfever,rootjuice with water for three consecutive days to cure body-swelling.
isalsogivenforindigestion.Plantpasteisappliedtotreatwarts Allpartsoftheplantcontain,mucronatinine(51),nilgirine(52),
onthesoleanditsjuiceisgivenforindigestion. usaramine(55),crotastriatine(56),monocrotaline(74),andcro-
Theplantcontainsthealkaloidcroalbidine(73).(Sharmaetal. madurine(75).(Chuetal.1964;Sawhneyetal.1967;Bhacca
1965;Sawhneyetal.1973;Sawhneyetal.1974).Thereareno et al. 1968; Atal et al. 1968; Han et al. 1981; Williams et al.
objectionstowardsatherapeuticuse. 1987).Theplantshouldnotbeusedmedicinically.
Pharmazie 64 (2009) 11 701
Pharmazie64(2009) 3
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2.2.7. CrotalariaprostrataRottb.exWilld.(syn.C.hirsuta chodesmine(77)(Purietal.1974;Surietal.1975a).
Wild.) Thisplantshouldnolongerbeusedtherapeutically.
C. prostrata is a medicinal plant in Nepal (Rajbhandari 2001;
Manandhar 2002, 2003; Singh et al. 2003; Baral et al. 2006)
2.2.11. CrotalariaverrucosaL.
[Nep.:Saanoboksibaja,Bansan,Sanochheke].
Distribution: The plant, a shrub, is growing throughout C.verrucosaisamedicinalplantofNepal(Anon.1970;Baral
500–2000m in open, sunny places, also in northern India, Sri etal.2006)[Nep.:Chhiku,Sobhaapuspi,Shovapusphi.Engl.:
Lanka,andMalaysia. Purple-floweredRattlepod].
Use:Apasteandjuiceofplantisappliedoncutsandwounds, Distribution: A native plant of tropical Africa, a herb, widely
andagainstgout.Rootpasteisusedtotreatdiarrhoeaandstom- cultivatedasagreenmanureandreadilynaturalizedintropical
achache. AsiaandthereforealsoinNepal.
Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus Use:Leafjuiceisusedinscabiesandimpetigobothinternally
Crotalariaandmanyplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids. andexternally,consideredefficaciousindiminishingsalivation,
Internaluseisnotrecommended. alsoappliedonscabiesandimpetigo.
Thisplantcontainsinallpartsanacrotine(50),crotaverrine(62),
2.2.8. CrotalariasessilifloraL.(syn.C.nepalensisLink, andO12-Acetylcrotaverrine(63)(Sharmaetal.1965;Surietal.
syn.C.anthylloidesLamarck,syn.C.brevipesChamp.ex 1976).Theplantshouldnolongerbeused.
Benth.,C.erianthaSieb.etZucc.).
C.sessilifloraisamedicinalplantinNepal(Manandhar2002,
2003;Singhetal.2003;Baraletal.2006)[Nep.:Sokrok,Setu 2.3. PA-containingmedicinalplantsofthefamily
phul,Sikrebha].ItisalsoamedicinalplantinChina[Chin.:Ye Boraginaceae
baihe;Nonjili](Roeder2000). The family Boraginaceae is world-wide distributed and com-
Distribution: It is an annual erect herb, growing throughout prises about 100 genera and 2000 species, mainly herbs and
Nepalat200–2800minopen,onriverbanksandgrassyplaces; shrubs. Many members of the genera of the tribes Bor-
alsoinChina,northeasternIndia,Bhutan,southeasternAsia, aginoideae, Lithospermeae, Cynoglosseae, Heliotropioideae,
Malaysia,Japan. Eritrichieaecontainnon-toxicand/ortoxicpyrrolizidinealka-
The juice of plant is applied to treat cuts and wounds, and is loids.
appliedonforeheadforheadache.Theplantandtheseedscon-
tain in high concentration integerrimine (53), monocrotaline
(74), and trichodesmine (77) (Sharma et al. 1965; Sha et al.
2.3.1. Arnebiabenthamii(Wall.exG.Don)I.M.Johnston,
1980;Huangetal.1980;Roederetal.1992).Thisplantshould
(syn.EchiumbenthamiWall.exG.Don.,syn.Macrotomia
notbeusedtherapeuticallyevenforexternalpurposes.
benthamii(Wall)A.DC.)
A. benthamii is a medicinal plant in Nepal and Tibet. (Lama
2.2.9. CrotalariaspectabilisRoth(syn.C.sericeaRetz.,
etal.2001;Kala2003;Baraletal.2006)[Nep.:Mahaarangi,
syn.C.leschenaultiadeCandolle)
Ultebhutkesh,Demok,Koma,Muktsi;Tib.:Mahaarangi,Ulte
C. spectabilis is a medicinal plant in Nepal (Anon. 1970; bhutkesh].
Manandhar 2002, 2003; Singh et al. 2003; Baral et al. 2006) Distribution: Perennial herb, growing in Trans-Himalaya,
[Nep.:Chhin-chhinbikh,Bhubanjhar,Engl.:ShowyRattlepod, KashmirtowesternNepal,indryopenslopes;2800–4300m.
Rattlebox]. Use: Useful in diseases of the tongue and throat; also used in
Distribution:Thisplant,aherb,isnativeineasternandcentral blooddisorder,highbloodpressure,fever,lungdiseases,cough,
NepalandIndia,growingabout2000minopenplaces. bodyache,headache.Extractoftherootstalkmixedwithhairoil
Use:Plantisusedintreatscabiesandimpetigo.Asalreadystated isappliedtocuredandruff,bloodpressure,fever,lungdiseases,
inNepaleseregulations,itispoisonoustolivestock.However, cough,bodyacheandearache.
peoplecooktheflowersandeatthemasvegetable. Alkaloids are unknown. Compare with Arnebia euchroma
The plant contains the alkaloids retusine (72), monocrotaline (Roederetal.1993a).Fortheindicationsmentioneditmaybe
(74),andspectabiline(76). usedwithrestrictions.
(Adamsetal.1939;Culvenoretal.1957;Williamsetal.1987).
Accordingtopresentknowledgethisplantshouldnotbeused.
2.3.2. Arnebiaeuchroma(RoyleexBenth.)I.M.Jonston,
2.2.10. CrotalariatetragonaRoxb.exAndrews,(syn.C. (syn.Macrotomiaeuchroma(Royle)Paulsen)
sesquiroliiH.Lév.,syn.C.grandifloraZoll.)
A.euchromaisamedicinalplantinNepalandTibet(Kala2003,
C. tetragona is a medicinal plant in Nepal and Tibet (Sharma Baraletal.2006,Smanla2007)[Nep.:Demok;Tib.:Brimog].
1993;Manandhar2002,2003;Singhetal.2003)[Nep.:Bhugan, ItisalsoamedicinalplantinChina[Zicao,Ruanzicao,Juan
Chepangbhwansak,Chhangoi,Tib.:Gungri,Mongan]. tsutsao].(Roeder2000)
Distribution: It is also a medicinal plant in China [Huan jin Distribution:Itisaperennialherb,growinginwesternandcen-
da] (Roeder 2000). This plant, a stiff shrub, grows throughout tralAsia,KashmirtoNepal,andChina,rockyslopes,3700m.
Nepal and China, at altitudes of 500–1700m on open slopes, UseinNepal:Bruisedrootisappliedtoeruptions;andtorelieve
alsoinnorthernIndia,Bhutan,nearIndo-Tibetanborderinthe toothacheandearache.
Himalayasrangingfrom2500–4000m.Itisaperennialherb. UseinTibet:Goodforcough,expectorant.Goodforblooddis-
Use:Formedicinalpurposesthewholeplanttogetherwiththe orders. Yields red colour for colouring tormas. Contains the
rootisused.Leafpasteistakeninternallytotreathighfevers.It alkaloidsO7-Angeloylretronecine(18),O9-angeloylretronecine
isalsousedasabloodpurifier. (23)(Roederetal.1993a).
Juice of leaf is applied to treat cuts and wounds. All parts of Althoughthesealkaloidsshowonlymoderatetoxicity,theplant
the plant contain high amounts of integerrimine (53), and tri- shouldnotbeusedmedicinally.
702 Pharmazie 64 (2009) 11
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2.3.3. CynoglossumamabileStapf&J.R.Drummond 2.3.6. CynoglossumlanceolatumForssk.,(syn.C.
canescensWilld.,syn.C.hirsutumThunb.,C.micranthum
C.amabileisamedicinalplantofTibet(Phuntsog2006)[Tib.:
Desf.,syn.C.racemosumRoxb.)
Nadma byarma]. It is also a medicinal plant in China [Chin.:
Goushihua](Roeder2000). C.lanceolatumisamedicinalplantinMongoliaandTibet(Ligaa
Distribution:Perennialherbisnaturallyoccurringinthesouth 1996;Kala2003;Sahetal.2003;Singetal.2003;Dakpa2007)
western provinces of Tibet, Bhutan and China and grows at [Mong.:Nariinnavcˇitcˇonynkhel,Tib.:Nadmajarma,Nadma
altitudesbetween2600–3700m. byarma,Lahaul-spiti,Engl.:SmallpetaledHoundstongue].Itis
Use:Internalofdigestionrestorative,externalincaseoffracture, alsoamedicinalplantinChina[Yayongcao](Roeder2000).
chronicwound,andswellingofextremities. Distribution:ItisabiennialherbgrowinginMongolia,central
Theplantcontainssupinine(24),rinderine(28),amabiline(35), Tibet,Trans-Himalaya,Chinaataltitudesof300to2800mon
echinatine (38), acetylechinatine (39). (Culvenor et al. 1967; sandy slopes, commonly found in most countries at 4500 m
Manko1972;El-Shazlyetal.1996).Althoughthesealkaloids orloweraltitudeterrainslikegrassyplains,fields,nearhuman
showonlymoderatetoxicity,thespeciesshouldnotbeusedas habitationandalongtheroadsides.
aremedy. UseinMongolia:Infantilediarrhoea.
UseinTibet:Healssores,wounds,joinscrackedandfractured
bones and relieves swollen limbs and treats accumulation of
serous fluids in the joints. Lowers fever, coughs, difficulty in
2.3.4. CynoglossumdivaricatumStephexLehmann passingurineduetowaterretentionandregulatesproperflow
ofmenstruationcycle,alsoasaaphrodisiac.Theplantcontains
ThisplantismedicinallyusedinMongolia(Ligaa1996;Arya thealkaloidscynaustraline(4),andcynaustine(34)(Surietal.
1998) [Mong.: Derevger Czoniin khal, Choniin khel, Cˆonyn 1975b).Therearenoobjectionstoitsuseasamedicinalplant.
khel,Engl.:DivaricateHoundstongue].
Distribution: It is a perennial herb growing in the Mongolian
areaKhangai,MongolDaurian,onsandybanksoftherivers,in 2.3.7. CynoglossumzeylanicumForssk.,(VahlexLehm)
fieldsasaweed. Thunb.syn.C.coeruleumBuch-Ham.exD.Don,syn.C.
Use:Theseedswillbeusedforinfantilediarrhoea. furcatumWall.,syn.AnchusazeylanicaVahlexHornem,
Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus syn.EchinospermumzeylanicumLehm.,Myosotiszeylanica
Cynoglossumandmanyplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids. SwartzexLehm.,syn.RocheliazeylanicaRoemer&
Compare with other Cynoglossum species. Internal use is not Schultes)
recommended.
C.zeylanicumisamedicinalplantinNepalandTibet(Bhattarai
1997;Lamaetal.2001;Manandhar2002;Sahetal.2003;Sing
etal.2003;Bhattaraietal.2006)[Nep.:Bherekuro,Kanikephul,
Bhendekuro,Kodakuro,Thina,Tam,Tinet-T,Kanikekuro;Tib.:
2.3.5. CynoglossumglochidiatumG.Don,Wall.exBenth.,
Tapa,Nemajarma;Engl.:Houndˇıstongue,Forget-me-not].Itis
(syn.C.canescensWilld.,syn.C.denticulatumA.DC.,syn.
alsoamedicinalplantinChina[Chin.:Tigusan](Roeder2000).
C.edgeworthiiDC.,syn.C.microcarpumA.Kerner,syn.C.
Distribution:Thebiennialherbgrowsthroughoutwesternand
hirsutumThunb.,syn.C.vesiculosumWallichexG.Don.,
central Nepal and Tibet at 1200–4100m, is common in open
syn.C.wallichiiG.Donsyn.var.glochidiatum(Wallex
placesoncultivatedandonuncultivatedland,ineasternChina,
Benth.)Kazmi,syn.Paracynoglossumdenticulatum(DC.)
India,Bhutan,Himalaya,Afghanistan.
M.Popov)
Use in Nepal: From the roots and leaves the peels are used
C.glochidiatumisamedicinalplantofNepalandTibet(Arya as antiseptic healing agent for cuts and wounds; its powder is
1998;Rajbhandari2001;Manandhar2002;Sahetal.2003;Kala appliedtotreatringworm.Diluteleafjuiceisappliedincorneal
2003; Baral et al. 2006; Kletter et al. 2001; Sing et al. 2003; conjunctivitis; also used in fractured bone, and is considered
Salicketal.2006)[Nep.:Barkachirchiri,Bhendekuro,Kanike todissolveuterinetumours,anddrawsoutlymphfluids.Root
kuro, Masine kuro, Boko tinai, Tejraaj, Bhende kuro, Kanike pasteisappliedinboilsandtohealwoundsasitisconsidered
kuro,Bokotinai,Yumuja,Tib.:Nadmabyarma,Engl.:Barbed antiseptic.
Appendage]. Use in Tibet: The pasted flowers are applied around boils. It
Distribution:Itisabiennialherbwidespreadinwesternandcen- helpstodrawoutpusandquickensthehealingprocess.Juice
tralNepalat500–4000m,commoninopenuncultivatedland, of the leaf is used as eye drops to treat conjunctivitis. Sores,
furtherinTibet,northernIndia.ItiscultivatedinwesternChina, swellings,coughandfracturedbone.Itdissolvesuterustumours
eastwardstoBhutanat1200–4000m. and draws out lymph fluids. The plant contains the alkaloids
UseinNepal:Rootpasteisappliedinmumps;plantjuiceisto coromandaline(3),cynaustraline(4),heliotrine(31),echinatine
treatcutandwounds,burnsandtostopvomitingininfants.A (38),andisoechinatine(40).(Chenetal.1987;Ravietal.2000;
leafisboilinginwaterwhichisusedtorelievethesensationof Ravicumaretal.2004).Therearenoobjectionstowardsitsuse
insectbitebywashingtheaffectedpart.Thepasteofaleafis asamedicalplant.
consideredantisepticandappliedtotreatwoundsbetweenthe
toes,causedbywalkingbarefootedinmuddywater.Plantwas
2.3.8. Hackeliauncinatum(RoyleexBenth.)C.E.C.Fischer,
alsousedasaphrosidiac.
(syn.Hackeliaglochidiata,(DC.)Brand,syn.Cynoglossum
UseinTibet:Consideredbeneficialforwounds,dissolvesuterus
uncinatumRoyleexBenth.,syn.C.laxumG.Don.,syn.C.
tumours,drawsoutsputum,healsacoughandisalsobeneficial
royleiWallexG.Don,syn.Echinospermumglochidiatum
forfirststageoedema.Seedsareeatenforpotencyandfertility.
DC,syn.Eritrichiumuncinatum(Benth.)Y.S.LianetJ.Q.
Plantpowder,mixedwithwaterisappliedtotreatringworm.
Wang,syn.Paracaryumglochidiatum(DC.)Benth.etHook)
The plant contains viridiflorine (2), cynaustraline (4), cynaus-
tine (34), amabiline (35). (Suri et al. 1975b; Rao et al. 1978). H.uncinatumisamedicinalplantinNepalandTibet(Tsarong
Althoughthesealkaloidsshowlowtoxicity,theplantshouldnot 1994;Baraletal.2006;Kletteretal.2001)[Nep.:Nadmasnun
beusedasaremedy. ma,Tib.:Neh-mah,Yhoo-loh].
Pharmazie 64 (2009) 11 703
Pharmazie64(2009) 5
REVIEW
Distribution. A perennial herb growing in southern Tibet, Theplantcontainalkaloids:“identicaltoalkaloidsofCaucasus
2700–4500m,northeasternIndia,southwesternChina,Bhutan. comfreyandlasiocarpine”(41)(Mankoetal.1968).Theplant
Use:Flowersareexpectorant,antitussiveusedtosubsidecough- shoulddefinitelynotbeusedmedicinally.
ing, heals wounds, and destroys tumours; also used against
tumoursinthewomb,sores,wounds,andswellingofthebody.
2.3.12. LappulamyosotisMoench,(syn.Lappulaechinata
Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus
G.,syn.Echinospermumlappula(L.)Lehmann,syn.
Hackelia and some plants of this genus have toxic alkaloids.
MyosotislappulaL.)
ForexampleHackeliacalifornica,growinginChina,contains
thealkaloidshackelidine(42)andO7-acetylhackelidine(43)(Li L. myosotis is a medicinal plant of Mongolia (Ligaa 1996)
1990).Internaluseisnotrecommended. [Mong.: Durskhal tsetsgerkhuu notsorgono, Zaraa, Dursgal
cecegerkhuunocorgono].
Distribution: An annual herb, growing widespread in the
2.3.9. HeliotropiumindicumL.,(syn.H.anisophyllumP.
Mongolian Khubskul, Khangai, Khentei, Mongol dahurica,
DeB,syn.H.parviflorumBlanko,syn.Tiaridiumindicum
AltaiandAlashaGobi.
(L.)Lehm.)
This plant is used in the Mongolian traditional medicine
H. indicum is a medicinal plant of Nepal (Rajbhandari 2001; externally for the treatment of broken bones as well as for
Manandhar 2002; Baral et al. 2006) [Nep.: Haati sude, Kuro, wound-healingandarticularswellings.
Engl.:Heliotrope,Scorpiontail,Indianturnsole]. The plant contains in high level the alkaloids intermedine
ItisalsoamedicinalplantinChina.[Chin.:Daweiyao](Roeder (26), acetylintermedine (27), lycopsamine (36), and acetylly-
2000).ItisanannualherbgrowingincentralNepal,easternto copsamine (37) (Wiedenfeld et al. 2005). The use of Lappula
southwesternChinatoabout1500monuncultivatedland;also myosotismaybehazardousforhumans.
inIndia.
Leaves are useful externally for local application for ulcers,
2.3.13. Lindelofiaanchusoides(Lindl.)Lehm.,(syn.L.
cleanses wounds, skin diseases, poisoning, internally useful
macrostyla(Bunge)M.Pop.syn.Paracarpiumheliocarpum
against worms, asthma, cough, anemia, insanity and epilepsy;
Kern.)
extractofyoungstemandbulbofonionistakentocurerabies.
Useful in fever, urticaria, gonorrhoea, ringworm, rheumatism, L. anchusoides is a medicinal plant of Tibet (Dakpa 2007;
and pharyngodynia. Flowers are abortifacient in large doses. Smanla2007)[Tib.:Nad.maYulo,Nemayulo].
Seedsarestomachic. Distribution: The biennual herb is growing in central Tibet,
Foundalkaloidsaresupinine(24),rinderine(28),heliotrine(31), Ladakh, Spiti, Garsha in Himachal Pradesh, in India,
indicine (32), acetylindicine (33), amabiline (35) echinatine 2500–4500m, west slope, loamy, stony, on dry sandy areas,
(38),acetylechinatine(39)andlasiocarpine(41),andhelindicine nearfieldsandroadsides.
(83)(Mattocksetal.1961;Mattocks1967;Hoqueetal.1976; Use:Healssoresinthechestanddriesserousfluid.Itisslightly
Kugelmanetal.1976;Pandeyetal.1982;Pandeyetal.1996; laxative.
Singhetal.2005;Souzaetal.2005).Theplantshouldnotbe The plant contains the non toxic alkaloid lindelofine (5).
usedfortherapeuticpurposes. (Labenskietal.1948;Babevetal.1976).Therearenoobjections
toitsuseasamedicinalplant.
2.3.10. HeliotropiumstrigosumWilldenowsubsp.
brevifolium(Wall.)Kazmi,(syn.H.compactumD.Don.), 2.3.14. Lindelofialongiflora(RoyalexBenth)Baill.,(syn.
syn.LithospermumchinenseHooker&Arnott L.spectabilisLehminHamb.,syn.Anchusopsislongiflora,
syn.CynoglossumlongiflorumBenth.InRoyle,syn.
H.strigosumisamedicinalplantofNepal(Rajbhandari2001;
Omphalodeslongiflora(Benth.)inRoyle,syn.Paracaryum
Manandhar2002;Singetal.2003;Wanatabeetal.2005;Baral
longiflorum(Benth.)Boiss.,syn.Anchusopsislongiflora
etal.2006)[Nep.:Mrigraaj,Chiraiyaa,Engl.:Heliotrope].
(Benth.)Bisch.)
Distribution:AperennialherbisgrowingthroughoutNepalto
about1400minopendryplaces,alsoinsubtropicalHimalaya, L. longiflora is a medicinal plant of Tibet (Kala 2003; Kletter
KashmirtoBhutan,South-China. etal.2001)[Tib.:Nadmag-yulo,Karar-tse].
Use: The plant is laxative and diuretic; its juice is used as an Distribution:PerennialherbisgrowingfromPakistantowestern
applicationtosoreeyes,gumboils,andsoresgenerally,andasa Nepal,commoninKashmiratdrysandyslopesat3000–4600m.
cureforthestingofnettlesandinsects.Apasteofrootisapplied Use:Totreatwounds,toreduceswellingafterinjuriesandtoheal
tocutsandwounds.Plantisusedforjointpainofcattle. bonefractures,anddiarrhoea.Containsthealkaloidechinatine
The non toxic alkaloid strigosine (1) had been isolated. (Mat- (38)anditsN-oxide.(Kellyetal.1990).Theuseformedicinal
tocks1964).Thereisnoobjectiontowardsmedicinalpurposes. purposeisnotrecommendableanymore.
2.3.11. Lappulaintermedia(Ldb)L.,M.Popov.,(syn. 2.3.15. Maharangarbicolor(Wall.exG.Don)(syn.
EchinospermumintermediumLedeb.) OnosmabicolorWall.exG.Don.,(syn.)A.DeCandolle.)
L.intermediaisanmedicinalplantofMongoliaandTibet(Ligaa M. bicolor is a medicinal plant of Nepal (Rajbhandari 2001;
1996;Kletteretal.2001)[Mong.:Zavsriinnotsorgono,Z˙avsryn Manandhar2002;Baraletal.2006;Bhattaraietal.2006)[Nep.:
nocorgono,Tib.:NadMarmunbu,Engl.:IntermediateSkick- Jubske,Jhuske,Mahaarangi,Brimog;Engl.:Maharanga].
seed]. It is also a medicinal plant in China [Chin.: He shi] Distribution:Perennialherbisgrowinginthesouthernpartof
(Roeder2000). Tibet,andinthewesternandcentralpartinthealpineregionof
Distribution: The annual herb is growing in east Mongolia, Nepalat3000–4000minopenfields;alsoinnorthernIndiaand
Mongolian Altai, east Gobi, Gobi Altai, inKazakstan, central Bhutan.
Tibet,andinnorth-easternprovincesofChina. Use:Therootispoundedandputoncleanclothandsqueezed
Use:Againstverminosis,oxyurasis,ascaridiasis,pruritus,itch, to take out liquid. One spoonful of liquid is mixed with two
ulcers,wounds,jaundice,fracture,andoedema. spoonfulofboiledmustardoil.About1-5dropswereputonear
704 Pharmazie 64 (2009) 11
6 Pharmazie64(2009)
REVIEW
2-3 times a day for ear pain. Rhizome juice is valued as hair hearttonic.Tenderrootsarevigorouslyrubbedovergraniteand
tonicatJumladistrict. theresultingpulpisusedasanantisepticforwounds.
M.bicolorcontainsapurple-rednaphthochinonepigment,con- Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus
sisting of shikonin derivatives. Alkaloids are unknown, but Onosmaandplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids.Compare
the plant is belonging to the genus Maharangar respective with Onosma alborosea (Roeder et al. 1993b). Internal use is
Onosma, and plants of this genus may have toxic alkaloids. notrecommended.
ComparewithOnosmaalborosea(Roederetal.1993b).Inter-
nal use is not recommended. For external use are moderate
2.3.19. OnosmahookeriC.B.Clarke
indications.
O.hookeriisamedicinalplantofTibet(Arya1998;Phuntsog
2006;Salicketal.2006;Dakpa2007)[Tib.:Dimog,Brimog].
2.3.16. Maharangaemodi(Wall.)A.deCandolle,(syn.
Distriburtion: Perennial herb is growing in Tibet, Nepal,
OnosmaemodiWall.DeRoxb)
Pakistan,andSikkiminIndiafrom2500–4700m.Itgrowson
M. emodi is a medicinal and cosmetic plant in Nepal and sunnyandsandygrassylandinareaZanskar,Ladakh.
Tibet (Rajbhandari 2001; Manandhar 2002; Baral et al. 2006; Use:Itwillbeusedasbloodcoagulant,haematemesis,malaena,
Bhattarai et al. 2006; Pandey 2006) [Nep.: Marangi, Tib.: lowersfeverofthelungsandtreatsvomitingofbloodandbloody
Dhimok,Vringi,Engl.:Onosma]. sputumduetoperforatedlungs.Remediesnosebleeding,checks
Distribution: Perennial herb throughout Nepal, growing at impurebloodandlossofhair.
2200–4500m on open, rocky ground, also in India, Bhutan, O.hookericontainsapurple-rednaphthochinonepigment,con-
southernTibet,andChina. sistingofshikoninderivatives.
Use:Crushedrootisboiledinrapeoilandsieved.Theresultant Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus
oilonheadisahairtonic. Onosmaandplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids.Compare
Whole plant against hypertension, fever caused due to lung with Onosma alborosea (Roeder et al. 1993b). Internal use is
problem,bloodpurification,skindiseases,rheumatism,urinary notrecommended.
disorders and as hair tonic. Then the root is pounded and put
oncleanclothandsqueezedtotakeoutliquid.Onespoonfulof
2.3.20. OnosmamultiramosumHandel-Mazz.
liquidismixedwithtwospoonfulofboiledmustardoil.About
1–5dropswereputonear2–3timesadayforearpain.Crushed O.multiramosumisacosmeticplantofTibet(Arya1998;Salick
rootboilerinrapeseedoilandservedtheresultantoilisapplied etal.2006)[Tib.:Brimog].
as a hair tonic and also to blacken it. Its dye is also used for Distribution: Perennial herb, grey-green, is growing in central
colouringwoolandsilk.Planthascooling,laxative,anthelmintic Tibet
properties.Itisgoodineyediseasesandpiles. Use:Redpigmentobtainedfromrootsisusedtocolourthehair.
M.emodicontainspurple-rednaphthochinonepigment,consist- O.multiramosumcontainspurple-rednaphthochinonepigment,
ingofshikoninderivatives. consistingofshikoninderivatives.
Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus
MaharangarrespectiveOnosma,andplantsofthisgenushave Onosmaandplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids.Compare
toxicalkaloids.ComparewithOnosmaalborosea(Roederetal. with Onosma alborosea (Roeder et al. 1993b). Internal use is
1993b).Internaluseisnotrecommended. notrecommended.
2.3.17. OnosmabracteatumWall 2.3.21. OnosmapracteatumWall
O. bracteatum is a remedy plant in Nepal (Pohle 1990; O.practeatumisaplantforcosmeticusesinNepalandTibet
Rajbhandari2001)[Nep.Koma,Muktsi,Brimog]. (Pohle1990;Arya1998)[Nep.:Koma,Muktsi,Tib.:Brimog].
Distribution: Perannual herb is growing in Himalayan part of Distribution: Perennial herb is growing in valleys of central
NepalandcentralNepal. NepalandTibet.
Use:Redpigmentobtainedfromrootsisusedtocolourbutter. Use:Therootoftheplantcontainsaredpigmentsolubleinoil
The colouring butter serves for offering cakes. O. bractea- whichisusedtocolourbutter.Thecolouredbutterservesasa
tumcontainspurple-rednaphthochinonepigment,consistingof decorationforofferingcakes(“Tsog”).
shikoninderivatives. O.practeatumcontainsapurple-rednaphthochinonepigment,
Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus consistingofshikoninderivatives.Alkaloidsareunknown,but
Onosmaandplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids.Compare the plant is belonging to the genus Onosma and plants of this
with Onosma alborosea (Roeder et al. 1993b). Internal use is genus have toxic alkaloids. Compare with Onosma alborosea
notrecommended. (Roederetal.1993b).Internaluseisnotrecommended.
2.3.18. OnosmaechioidesL. 2.3.22. Trichodesmaindicum(L.)R.Br.,(syn.Borago
indicaL.)
O. echioides is a medicinal plant in Nepal and Tibet (Sharma
2000; Baral et al. 2006; Bhattarai et al. 2006) [Nep.: Mahaa T. indicum is a medicinal plant of Nepal (Rajbhandari 2001;
rangi,Tib.:Rattanjot,Mahaarangi,Brimog;Engl.:Maharanga Manandhar2002;Sahetal.2003;Singetal.2003;Baraletal.
inAyurvedicmedicine]. 2006)[Nep.:Kanikekuro,Unminti;Engl.:Primisflower].
Distribution:Perennialherbisgrowinginthesubalpineareaof Distribution: This perennual herb is growing in western and
NepalandTibet. central Nepal to about 900 up to 1500 m, India, Afghanistan,
Use in Nepal. Roots bruised and applied to eruption; leaves subtropicalHimalaya,andKashmir.
alterative,powderisgiventochildrenaspurgative;flowersused Use: Extract of the plant is used in anthralgia, dyspepsia,
ascordialandstimulantinrheumatismandpalpitationofheart. diarrhoea, dysentery, leprosy, skin diseases, opthalmopathy,
UseinTibet:Leavesandflowersarefinelychoppedandmixed expulsion of foetus, sores and fevers. Leaves in cold infusion
withhoney.Thepasteisconsumedforrheumaticpainsandasa are considered depurative. Roots are used in dysentery and to
Pharmazie 64 (2009) 11 705
Pharmazie64(2009) 7
REVIEW
reduceswellingsofthejoints.Driedplantismixedwithflourof Use:Theleafjuiceisusedtostopbleedingofcutsandwounds,
fingermilletandricetomakebreadandthebreadiseatenwith formingclots.Rootjuiceisprescribedtotreatfever.Purejuice
honeytotreatheadacheand/ordysentery. oftheleafispouredintheeyetotreatinsomnia;thedecoction
Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus oftheplantisusedasfebrifuge.
Trichodesmaandplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids.Com- Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus
parewithTrichodesmaincanum(Yunusovetal.1957).Internal Eupatoriumandplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids.Com-
useisnotrecommended. parewithEupatoriumodoratum(Billeretal.1994).Internaluse
isnotrecommended.
2.4. PA-containingmedicinalplantsofthefamily 2.4.1.4. EupatoriumchinenseL.,(syn.E.clematideum(Wallich
Asteraceae exdeCandolle)SchultzBipontinus,syn.E.longicauledeCan-
dolle,syn.E.revesiiWall.exdeCandolle,syn.E.squamosum
ThefamilyAsteraceae(Compositae)isoneofthelargestfam-
Buch.-Ham.exD.Don.,syn.E.viscosumWallich,E.wallichii
iliesoffloweringplants,buttoxicspeciesarerare.Onlyinthe
de Candolle, syn. Conyza longicaulis Wallich, syn. Micania
tribesEupatorieaeandSenecioneaetoxicspeciescanbefound.
clematideaWallichexdeCandolle). E.chinenseisamedicinal
Mostofthemcontainpyrrolizidinealkaloids.
plantofNepalandTibet(Manandhar2002)
[Nep.:Banmara;Tib.:Duk].ItisalsoamedicinalplantofChina
2.4.1. TribeEupatorieae [Chin.:Huazhelan](Roeder2000).Distribution:Theperennial
herbgrowsincentralandwesternNepalat2000–2600minopen
2.4.1.1. AgeratumconyzoidesL.,syn.Eupatoriumconyzoides
anddeforestedareas;innorth-easternregionsofChinafrom800
(L.)(E.H.L.Krause),(syn.Careliaconyzoides(L.)Kuntze). A.
to1900m;alsoinIndia,Bhutan,Japan,Taiwan.
conyzoidesisamedicinalplantinNepal(Anon.1970;Bhattarai
Use:Themilkylatexisappliedtotreatgoitre.
1997;Rajbhandari2001;Manandhar2002;Rai2003;Sahetal.
Theplantcontains“toxicalkaloidsandN-oxides”(Zhaoetal.
2003;Singetal.2003;Watanabeetal.2005;Baraletal.2006)
1989)andshouldnolongerbeused.
[Nep.:Bokeghaans,Ganmane,Ganhaauneghaans,Ilamejhar,
Ghandejhar,Angalejhar,Bhakumbhar,Ganmaeghans,Raunja-
2.4.1.5. Eupatorium odoratum L. (syn. Chromolaena odorata
C, Nimane jhar-M, Than ninoba-T, Than benoba Raunde-C,
(L.) R. King & Robinson). E. odoratum is a medicinal plant
Raunne-N.;Engl.:Goatweed,Whiteweed,Bastardagrimony,
of Nepal (Bhattarai 1997; Manandhar 2002; Rai 2004) [Nep.:
Appagras].ItisalsoamedicinalplantofChina[Chin.:Sheng
Banmara, Singhar, Daubanthu., Aule ban maara, Sing jhar,
hongji](Roeder2000).
Lobasiya,Chukutenay,Engl.:Siamweed,Christmasbush].
Distribution:ThisannualherbisgrowingthroughoutNepalto
Distribution:Annualherbalplantgrowingincentralandeastern
about2200m,andwidespreadinChinaatanaltitudeof600to
Nepal to about 1500 m, open and deforested places. Also in
800m,usuallyindampplaces,andispantropical.
China,intropicalAsia,andAmericas.
Use:Theplantisastimulantandtonic;itsjuiceisaremedyof
Use:Theleafjuiceisappliedtocutsandopenwounds.Itiscon-
prolapsus ani, decoction and infusion of leaf and root is used
sideredgoodforseverelychappedhandsandfeet.Itpossesses
in diarrhoea, dysentery, and also for colic, rheumatism, fever,
haemostaticandantisepticproperties.Alsotochecknasalbleed-
Drops of leaf juice are use to treat catarrh and has antiseptic
ing. Two drops of leaf extract dropped in nose to cure severe
properties.Flowerbudscurecancerousgrowth.Juiceofrootis
headache.Leafjuiceisusedasantirhemorrhoidandantiseptic.
antilithic.
Containsthemoderatelytoxicalkaloids7-angeloylretronecine
Leafjuiceisappliedoncutsandwounds.andonrupturescaused
(18), 9-angeloylretronecine (23), supinine (24), intermedine
byleprosy.Boiledwithoilappliedexternallyinrheumatism.As
(26), rinderine (28), acetylrinderine (29) (Biller et al. 1994).
alreadystatedinNepaleseregulations,leavescausenauseaand
Fortheindicatedpurposesitmaybeusedwithrestrictions.
vomitinginlivestock.Containsthealkaloidslycopsamine(36),
andechinatine(38)(Wiedenfeldetal.1991).
It should not longer be used as a traditional medicinal plant 2.4.2. TribeSenecioneae
becauseofitshighalkaloidcontentandtheirhepatotoxiceffects.
ThetribeSenecioneaeisthelargesttribeintheAsteraceaewith
3200speciesand120genera.Itisagroupofplantsthatcontains
2.4.1.2. AgeratumhoustonianumMiller. A.houstonianumisa manyandtoxicpyrrolizidinealkaloids.
medicinal plant of Nepal (Bhattarai 1997; Rajbhandari 2001; ThegenusSenecioisdistributedworld-wideandcontainsmore
Manandhar2002;Baraletal.2006)[Nep.:Nilogandhe,Gandhe than1500species.Mostofthesespecieswereshowntocause
jhaar,Boke-bon;Engl.Goatweed,Mistflower]. poisoninginpeopleandanimals.
Distribution: This herb grows in eastern and central Nepal to
about1300m;alsopantropical.
2.4.2.1. CacaliahastataL. C.hastataisamedicinalplantof
Use:Leafjuiceisexternallyappliedtostopbleedingandhealing
Mongolia (Bayarsukh 2008) [Mong.: Ilden iguˇıushiw. Engl.:
cut wounds. Contains the alkaloids lycopsamine (36), retro-
Hastate Cacalia]. It is also a medicinal herb of China [Chin.:
houstine (44), isoretrohoustine (45), and heliohoustine (46)
Shanjianzi](Roeder2000).
(Wiedenfeldetal.2001).Internaluseisnotrecommended.
Distribution:CentralMongoliaandcentralChina.
Use: Leaves are used against gastric and stomach ulcer, res-
2.4.1.3. Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng., (syn. E. glandu- piratoryinfection,inflammationofthestomach,inflammation
losum Kunt, syn. Ageratina adenophora (Spreng) R. King & of mouth cavity. Extract has anti-inflammatory activity; is
Robinson). E.adenophorumisamedicinalplantofNepal(Ioshi antibacterial,spasmolytic,choleretic,antipyretic,andantihaem-
etal.1990;Bhattarai1997;Manandhar2002;Sahetal.2003; orrhagic.
Singetal.2003;Baraletal.2006)[Nep.:Banmaara,Banmara-T, Contains the alkaloids platyphylline (47), hastacine (49), and
Banmasa,Mohini-C;Engl.:Croftonweed,Mexicandevil]. in C. hastata subspec. orientalis Kitamura integerrimine (53)
Distribution: Herb growing in central and eastern Nepal, (Konovalovetal.1945;Hayashietal.1972;Altanchimeg2001).
500–2000minopenanddeforestredareas;apantopicalweed. Fortheindicatedpurposesitcanbeused.
706 Pharmazie 64 (2009) 11
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REVIEW
2.4.2.2. Crassocephalumcrepidioides(Benth.)S.Moore(syn. Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus
Gynura crepidioides Benth.). C. crepidioides is a medicinal Ligulariaandplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids.Compare
plantofNepal(Rajbhandari2001;Manandhar2002;Baraletal. withLigulariacymbulifera(Liuetal.2008).
2006)[Nep.:Anikaalejhaar,Saalahakojhar-N,Udomuntojhar, Internaluseisnotrecommended.
Jhulejhar,Kaikalai,Lodrotabra,Tabra,Niritloba,Namlejhar,
Lodomran;Engl.:Thickhead].Thisisalsoamedicinalplantof 2.4.2.6. Ligularia fischeri (Ledebour) Turczaninow, (syn. L.
China[Chin.:JiaTongHao](Roeder2000). racemosa de Candolle, syn. Cineraria fischeri Ledebour, syn.
Distribution:Erectpubescentherb,growingthroughoutNepal Senecio ligularia Hooker fil, syn. S. sibiricus Lin. fil). L. fis-
at 400–2500m, moist places; also pantropical. In China it is cherii is a medicinal plant in Mongolia and Nepal (Ligaa
widespread at altitudes of 300–1800m in the north-eastern 1996; Manandhar 2002) [Mong.: Fisheriin zayakkhai, Fisˇiriin
region. z˙ayakhai,Goozayakhai,Nep.:Simaudya;Engl.:FischerGold-
Use:Rootpasteand/orleafjuiceisappliedoncutwounds;plant enray].
juiceisgiventocurediarrhoea.Theplantcontainstheverytoxic Distribution:HerbinMongoliaandhereinKhubsugul,Khentei,
alkaloidsjacobine(66),andjacoline(67). Khangai,mongolDaurian,throughoutNepalat2200–4600min
(Asadaetal.1985).Theplantshouldnolongerbeused. moist,openplacetbesidesstreams;alsoinnorternIndia,Bhutan,
China,easternSibiria.
Use:SeeLigulariasibirica.Tenderleavesarecookedasaveg-
2.4.2.3. Emiliasonchifolia(L.)DC.,(syn.EmiliasinicaMiq.,
etable.
syn. Cacalia sonchifolia L., syn. Crassocephalum sonchi-
Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus
folium (L.) Less.). E. sonchifolia is a medicinal plant of
Ligulariaandplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids.Internal
Nepal (Manandhar 1994; Rajbhandari 2001; Sing et al.
useisnotrecommended.ComparewithLigulariacymbulifera
2003; Watanabe et al. 2005) [Nep.: Chaulaane Jhaar, Dudhe,
(Liuetal.2008).Fortheindicatedpurposesitmaybeusedwith
Hirankhuri; Engl.: Tassel flower, Emilia]. It is also a medic-
restrictions.
inal plant in China [Chin.: Yang ti cao, Yi dian hong, I
thien hung] (Roeder 2000). Distribution: An annual herb
2.4.2.7. Ligulariasibirica(L.)Cass.. L.sibiricaisamedicinal
occurring in Nepal, China, India, ascending up to 1800–
plantofMongolia(Ligaa1996)[Mong.:Sibirizayakhai;Sibir’
2100m.
z˙ayakhai,Ogussiirva,Engl.:SiberianGoldenray].
Use:Adecoctionoftheplantisfebrifugeandantipyretic,and
Distribution:HerbinBulganandHuvsgulAimaginMongolia
isalsogiventotreatstomachcomplaintsandearache.Thepure
inlargeamountsonpasturesandmeadows.
juiceoftheplantisappliedtotreatinsomnia.Thejuiceofthe
Use: Bilious diseases, typhus, poisonous diseases, chronic
rootisgiventotreatdiarrhoea.
bronchitis, pulmonary tuberculosis, hemoptysis, hematemesis,
Flowerheadischewedandkeptforawhileinsidethemouthto
wounds,yellowliquorstasis,winddiseases.
protectteethfromdecaying.
Thenon-toxicalkaloidtussilagine(14)anditsisomers(15–17)
Contains the alkaloids senkirkine (64), and doronine (70)
havebeenisolated(Wiedenfeldetal.2003).Therearenoobjec-
(Chengetal.1986).Medicinaluseisnotrecommended.
tionstotheusethisplant.
2.4.2.8. Petasites tricholobus Franch. P. tricholobus is a
2.4.2.4. GynuranepalensisDC.(syn.CacaliaaurantiacaWall).
medicinalplantofTibet(Arya1998;Salicketal.2006;Smanla
G.nepalensisisamedicinalplantofNepal(Bhattaraietal.2006;
2007).[Tib.:Lugso].Distribution:AnnualherbinCentralTibet.
Baraletal.2006).[Nep.:Mendho].
Use: It is said to remove wound fever and draw out smallpox
Distribution: Herb growing in Himalaya, Kashmir to Bhutan,
permeatinginsidethebody.
northeasternIndia,China.
Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus
Use: Plant juice is applied to stop bleeding of fresh cuts and
Petasitesandplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids.Compare
wounds.
withPetasitesjaponicus(Yamadaetal.1976;Niwaetal.1983).
Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus
Internaluseisnotrecommended.
Gynuraandplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids.Compare
Gynura scandens (Wiedenfeld 1982) and G. segetum (Liang
2.4.2.9. SenecioargunensisTurcz.. S.argunensisisamedici-
et al. 1984). For the indicated purposes it may be used with
nalplantofMongolia(Ligaa1996)[Mong.:Urguniizokhimon,
restrictions.(Daietal.2007)
Orgoniiz˙okhimon,Engl.:Argungroundsel].Itisalsoamedici-
nalplantofChina:[Chin.:Zhanlongcao](Roeder2000).
2.4.2.5. Ligularia amplexicaulis DC, (syn. Senecio amplexi- Distribution:HerbineastMongolia.InChinaitiswidespread
caulisWall.exC.B.Clarke). L.aplexicaulisisamedicinalplant ataltitudesof500to3300m.
of Nepal and Tibet (Tsarong 1994; Dawa 1999; Manandhar UseinMongolia:Gastrictumour,ulcers,beesnake-scorpionand
2002;Baraletal.2006;Dakpa2007).[Nep.:Nangre,Bijauri; others poisonous insect bites, conjunctivitis, moisture pimple,
Tib.:Ri.sho,Rheesho;Engl.:Ragwort]. dermatitis,laryngitis,pharyngitis.
Distribution: Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan and Kashmir from Alkaloidsareintegerrimine(53),eruciflorine(54),senecionine
2700–4300m on slightly dry hill slopes, in shady and stony (57), erucifoline (59), seneciphylline (60), and otosenine (71)
areasandamongbushesandgrasses. (Liuetal.1991;Chengetal.1992).Thisplantshouldnolonger
UseinNepal:Paste,essentialoilfromthetuberisappliedexter- beusedtherapeutically.
nallyagainstrheumaticpain.
Adecoctionoftherootisboiledtoagelatinousmass,whichis 2.4.2.10. SeneciocappaBuch.-Ham.exD.Don,(syn.S.den-
appliedtotreatsprain. siflorusWallexDeCandolle). S.cappaisamedicinalplantof
Essential oil extracted from the tuber is applied externally Nepal (Manandhar 2002; Baral et al. 2006). [Nep.: Baakhraa
againstrheumaticpain. kaane,Barkekane].
UseinTibet:Digestiveandagainstemesisfromingestion,and Distribution:EasternandcentralNepal,at1300–2900m,com-
in case of bile and phlegm diseases. Heals sores, dries serous moninshrubbyareasofforests;alsoinNorthernIndia,Bhutan,
fluid,andcuresoldepidemicdiseases. westernChina.
Pharmazie 64 (2009) 11 707
Pharmazie64(2009) 9
REVIEW
Use:Rootjuiceisgiventotreatfever.Leafpasteisappliedto (Kompis et al. 1962; Sedmera et al. 1972; Boeva et al. 1979;
treatboils. Witteetal.1992).Thisplantshouldnolongerbeusedtherapeuti-
Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus cally.
Senecioandplantsofthisgenushavetoxicalkaloids.Compare
withSeneciochrysanthemoidesandmanyotherSeneciospecies.
2.4.2.15. Senecio nemorensis (L.) (syn. S. nemorensis var.
Internaluseisnotrecommended.
octoglossus(DC.)KochexLedeb,syn.S.gampinensisVaniot,
syn.S.kematogensisVaniot)(Ligaa2006). S.nemorensisisa
2.4.2.11. Senecio chrysanthemoides (DC.) Schrank & Baier, medicinalplantofMongolia[Mong.:Oinz˙okhimon,Naimaldai
(syn. Senecio jacobaea auct. non L., syn. S. laetus Edgew.). zokhimon, Engl.: Nemorensis ragwort]. It is also a medicinal
S.chrysanthemoidesisamedicinalplantofNepal(Manandhar plantinChina[Chin.:Huanawan](Roeder2000).Distribution:
2002;Kala2003;Baraletal.2006;Smanla2007)[Nep.:Bijauri OccursinMongolia,andinChinaataltitudesof700–3000m,
phul,Rgudrus,Hechiang,Engl.Ragwort].Itisalsoamedicinal andinRussia.
plantofChina[Chin.:Chienlikuang,Tsangtusanchi](Roeder Use:Itisatraditionalmedicinalplantusedincasesofpainrelief,
2000). reducesecretionofglands,improveheartbeat,ishypotensive.
Distribution:HerbisgrowinginPakistan,Himalaya,northeast- It contains 7- and 9-angeloylplatynecine (8, 10), fuch-
ernIndia,southChina,andinsubtropical-subalpineregions. sisenecionine(11),sarracine(12),6-angeloylhastanecine(13),
Use:Rootinfusionisgivenincaseofindigestion.Rheumatism, 7- and 9-angeloylretronecine (18, 23), doriasenine (22),
fever,abdominalpain. triangularine (19), 7-senecioylretronecine (20), 7-senecioyl-
Theplantcontainstheverytoxicalkaloidsintegerrimine(53), 9-sarracinoylretronecine (21), platyphylline (47), senecionine
senecionine(57),retrorsine(58),seneciphylline(60),senkirkine (57),nemorensine(79),retroisosenine(80),bulgarsenine(81),
(64),jacozine(65),jacobine(66),jacoline(67),jaconine(69), doronenine(82),andtheN-oxidesoftheseinvariousconcentra-
and otosenine (71). (Bradbury et al. 1959; Geissman 1959; tions.(Corcilius1955;Lemp1955;Klaseketal.1973;Nguyen
Walietal.1964;Culvenor1964;Akramovetal.1966;Segall etal.1976;Roederetal.1977;Roederetal.1979;Klaseketal.
1978; Dimenna et al. 1980; Witte et al. 1992; Macel et al. 1980;Schmidetal.1987;Wiedenfeldetal.1989;Gottlieb1990;
2004).Thisplantshouldnolongerbeusedfortherapeuticpur- Wiedenfeldetal.2000;Christovetal.2005).
poses.Manypoisoningsinyaks(Poephagusgrunniens)withS. Extracts of S. nemorensis display both mutagenic and car-
chrysanthemoidesaredescribedintheliterature(Mondaletal. cinogenic effects and should therefore no longer be used for
1999). therapeuticalpurposes(Habsetal.1982).
2.4.2.12. Senecio dianthus Ranch. S. dianthus is a medicinal
2.4.2.16. Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don., (syn. S.
plantofTibet(Phuntsog2006)[Tib.:Yugushing].
chinensis(Spr.)DC). Senecioscandensisamedicinalplantof
Distribution:AnnualherbinTibetin2300–3000maltitude.
Tibet(Dawa1999)[Tib.:Rgu-drus].Itisalsoamedicinalplant
Use:Antidottopoison,antibiotic,reducepainandswellingof
ofChina[Chin.:Qianliguang,Chiuliming](Roeder2000).
ulcer.
Distribution: Growing herb in Tibet and China between
Alkaloids are unknown, but the plant is belonging to the
1800–3800monmountains,foothills,nearwatercanals,along
genusSenecioandplantsofthisgenuscontaintoxicalkaloids.
roadsides,incoolshadowsandmoderatelymoistareas.
Compare with Senecio chrysanthemoides. Internal use is not
UseinNepal:Joinsrupturedcapillaries,colicpainbyinflamma-
recommended.
tionintheintestinaltract,dysentery,healswounds,alsouseful
intreatinghotdisorderoftheholloworgans,eczemaandother
2.4.2.13. Senecio diversifolius Wall. ex DeCandolle, (syn. skindiseases.
S.raphanifolius Wallich ex de Candolle). S. diversifolius is a Contains the alkaloids neoplatyphylline (48), senecionine
medicinal plant of Nepal (Bhattarai 1997; Manandhar 2002; (57),senecionineN-oxide,seneciphylline(60),seneciphylline
Wanatabe et al. 2005) [Nep.: Raipate, Bajari phul, Marcha, N-oxide,andsenkirkine(64),andadonifoline(68).
Chenti,Kadik,Mhendo,Pramji]. (Batra1977;Lietal.2008;Zhangetal.2008).Mostofthese
Distribution:AherbgrowingthroughoutNepal,at2300–4000m alkaloidsaretoxicandtheplantshouldthereforenolongerbe
inmoist,shadyplaces;alsoinnorthernIndiaandBhutan. usedfortherapeuticalpurposes.
Use:Theleafjuiceisappliedtobleedingwoundsandcutsasa
haemostatandanantiseptic.
Root infusion is taken in cases of indigestion. It is also used 2.4.2.17. SeneciosolidagineusSpreng.(Hand-Mazz.). S.sol-
topreparemarcha,acakefermentadedwithyeast,fromwhich idagineusisamedicinalplantofTibet(Arya1998;Salicketal.
liquorisdistilled. 2006;Smanla2007)[Tib.:Yugusin,Chuthungsanbaisman
Alkaloids are unknown, but the plant is belonging to the gcig,Tretresin,Dururdoldag,Phagldanbcadbyor,Byaseb,
genusSenecioandplantsofthisgenuscontaintoxicalkaloids. Phagldanbcadbyor,Byaseb].
Compare with Senecio chrysanthemoides. Internal use is not Distribution:HerbgrowsincentralTibet.
recommended. Use:Theplantcureinfectiousswellingsandfeverduetopoi-
soning.
Alkaloidsareunknown,buttheplantisbelongingtothegenus
2.4.2.14. SenecioerucifoliusL. S.erucifoliusisanalternative
Senecioandplantsofthisgenuscontaintoxicalkaloids.Com-
medicinalplantofMongolia(Ligaa1996)[Mong.:Khizzokhi-
parewithSenecioscandens.
mon,Engl.:RoquetteleafGroundsel].
Internaluseisnotrecommended.
Distribution: Annual herb growing in Khentei, Khangei, East
Mongoliaonbanksofrivers.
Use:Gastrictumour,ulcers,beesnake,scorpionandotherspoi- 2.4.2.18. SeneciothianschanicusRegel&Schmalh. S.thians-
sonousinsectbites,conjunctivitis,moisturepimple,dermatitis, chanicusisamedicinalplantofTibet(Arya1998;Salicketal.
laryngitis,pharyngitis. 2006;Smanla2007)[Tib.:Sgasochunba].
The plant contains the very toxic alkaloids senecionine Distribution:HerbgrowsincentralTibet.
(57), retrorsine (58), erucifoline (59), and seneciphylline (60) Use:Theplantisbeneficialinmeatpoisoning.
708 Pharmazie 64 (2009) 11
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