PYC2602 Child and Adolescent Development 2016

203 Pages·2017·3.92 MB·English

PYC2602 Child and Adolescent
Development 2016
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PYC2602

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Second Edition
Dap Louw & Anet Louw
Copyright ©

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Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of Child and Adolescent Development
1.6 Theories of Development
A theory is an organised set of ideas that is designed to explain and make predictions
about development. A theory has several functions and advantages:
- A theory summarises and explains the presently known facts
- A theory aims to predicts future behaviour
- A theory stimulates new research
There are various theories of child development. They can be grouped together to form
five major theoretical perspectives of child development: the biological, psychodynamic,
learning, cognitive-developmental and contextual perspectives. An African perspective
linked to the contextual perspective will also be discussed.
1.6.1 The biological perspective
Behaviour is primarily determined by biological factors. Environmental factors are
regarded as a secondary role player in behaviour. The biological perspective emphasis
the role of heredity (genes), the nervous system (the brain) and the endocrine system
(hormones) in behaviour.
 The maturational theory. One of the first biological theories by American
psychologist Arnold Gesell (1880-1961). Child development reflects a specific and
prearranged scheme or plan within the body. A natural unfolding plan and
experience matters little. Speech, play and reasoning emerge spontaneously
according to a predetermined timetable without influence from the environment.
(The maturational theory was discarded because it had little to say about the
impact of the environment).
 Ethological theory. Views development from an evolutionary perspective, many
behaviours tend to be adaptive. People inherit many of these adaptive behaviours.
Ethologists believe that all animals are biologically programmed so that some kind
of learning occur only at certain stages, called critical periods. A critical period is
the stage in development when a specific type of learning can take place. (Before
or after the period learning is difficult/impossible).
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Austrian zoologist Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989) noticed that newly hatched goslings
followed whatever moving object the saw first. He hatched goose eggs and noticed
that the newly hatched goslings followed him everywhere. This behavioural pattern
remained relatively permanent.
This behaviour is called imprinting, learning that takes place during a short, early
period when attachment to any species occurs. (The critical period lasts about a
day, after that period the imprinting does not take place.) Experience is essential
for triggering programmed, adaptive behaviours.
Critical and sensitive periods:
- The terms critical and sensitive are often used as synonyms.
- Although similar, there is a difference.
- During a sensitive period the child is very susceptible to environmental
influences, but less than in the case of a critical period.
- External influences may also have an effect before and after a sensitive period.

 Evolutionary theory. Charles Darwin’s (1809-1882) theory of evolution and thus his
principle of natural selection. Human behaviour results from successful adaption
to the environment. Evolution refers to the change in the inherited characteristics
over successive generations.
Evolutionary developmental theory highlights the adaptive behaviour of
children’s behaviour at different points in development. It also provides insight into
causes of problems (ex. Aggression), as well as solutions. Children’s behaviour
has evolved over the past several million years.
It is acknowledged that most forms of normal and abnormal behaviour have at
least a biological basis. The biological perspective has led to a new interest in
physiological psychology. Research contributions have been made in the following
sub disciplines:
- Neuropsychology focuses on the nervous system and the brain. Developed
neuro-imaging (brain scanning) which helps us to understand behaviour.
- Behavioural genetics studies the role of genetic factors in behaviour.
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- Psycho-endocrinology focuses on the relationship between behaviour and
the endocrine system, especially the hormones.

1.6.2 The psychodynamic perspective
Explores the influence of unconscious psychological motives, such as drives or urges.
Represents the oldest psychiatric/psychological perspective on child development.
Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson are best known in this regard.

1.6.2.2 Erikson’s psychosocial theory
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) embraced the idea of unconscious conflict, but emphasised
the psychological and social aspects of conflict, rather than the biological and sexual
aspects. In his theory, development consists of a sequence of stages. It includes 8
stages. (See table 1.2) The name reflects the challenge that individuals face at a
particular age.
Table 1.2

- The earlier stages also provide the foundation for later stages.
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1.6.3.2 Social cognitive theory
Children learn much by watching those around them, which is known as imitation,
modelling or observational learning.
Albert Bandura (1925-present) is regarded as the father of this viewpoint. Bandura placed
emphasis on children’s ability to decide which behaviour to model. This decision is
influenced by children’s own expectations of the consequences of imitating will be, own
personal standards and value systems and how powerful and dynamic the model is.
Bandura also argues that children’s self-efficacy (beliefs about their own abilities and
potential) plays a role in imitating others.

- Learning theories has been subjected to criticism though
- Too much emphasis on environmental determinants
- Inadequate attention is payed to developmental changes
- Cultural factors are not taken into account.

1.6.4 The cognitive developmental perspective
Focuses on how children think and on how their thinking changes over time.
1.6.4.1 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) believed that children naturally try to make sense out of their
world. They want to understand the workings of both their physical and social world.
Piaget argues that they create theories about their physical worlds. When the predicted
events do occur, a child’s belief in their theory grows stronger. When predicted events do
not occur, the child must revise their theory. At a few critical points in development,
children realise their theories have basic flaws. They then revise their theories radically.
Piaget claimed that radical revisions occur three times in development; once at about age
two, a second time at about seven and a third time just before adolescence.
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Table 1.3 Piaget’s four stages of cognition development

- Piaget believed that children are naturally curious
- They create theories about how the world works
- Children come to understand the world by using schemes (psychological
template)
- Schemes are mental categories of related events, objects and knowledge
- As they grow older they will expand their mental schemes in a more abstract
and symbolic way
According to Piaget cognitive development is based on the following interrelated
principles and processed:
Firstly, organisation, which is the tendency of cognitive processes to become more
complex, systematic and coherent.
Secondly, adaptation which means they have to deal with information that conflict what
they already know. Adaptation involves two processes: assimilation (the tendency to
interpret new experiences in terms of an existing scheme) and accommodation (takes
place when the child is corrected).
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Equilibration: The process of striving for a stable balance or equilibrium between
assimilation and accommodation.

1.6.4.2 The information-processing theory
- Tries to explain how incoming information is processed in order for the person to make
sense out of it.
- Draws on the functioning of computers to explain thinking
- Information-processing theory proposes that human cognition consists of mental
hardware and mental software.
- Mental hardware: Cognitive structures, including different memories where information
is stored.
- Mental software: Includes organised sets of cognitive processes that allow children to
complete specific tasks.
The memory system is made up of multiple components:
- The sensory memory (where information is recognised)
- The short term memory (the working memory where information is processed)
- The long term memory (where information is permanently stored)

Children’s thinking becomes more sophisticated as they develop; more sophisticated metal
hardware and mental software.

1.6.5 The contextual perspective
- The environment is an important force in development.
- Environmental influences like people and institutions fit together to form a person’s
culture (the knowledge, attitudes and behaviour associated with a group of people.)
- A culture provides the context in which a child develops an is important

1.6.5.1 Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) emphasises the cultural context in children’s development. He
focused on ways that adults convey to children the beliefs, customs and skills of their
culture. He believed that every aspect of a child’s development should be considered
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against their cultural backdrop. Vygotsky suggested that a child’s learning of new skills is
guided by an adult or older child, who models and structures the learning experience.
Zone of proximal development: Tasks which are too difficult for a child to do alone, but
which he or she can manage with the help of an adult.

1.6.6 The African perspective
- Have been documented only fairly recently because the paradigms were based largely
on oral traditions and were therefore narrative (verbal).
- The traditional African worldview is based on a holistic perspective of humans and the
universe and human behaviour can only be understood in terms of the greater whole of
which the individual Is part.
- This perspective assumes a hierarchical view of the universe: inanimate objects form
the lowest level, followed by plants and animals.
- Humans are placed in the middle followed by the living dead.
-Certain societies, God is at the top of the hierarchy.
- Human behaviour is viewed from an anthropocentric framework because humans are
placed in the middle of the universe.
- Humans are influenced by their relationship with the environment, other people and
ancestors.
- The African perspective places great emphasis on spirituality.
- Cultural expressions through art, rituals and symbols are used to restore possible
opposing forces between the individual, the environment and the spiritual world.
- The community plays a central role.
- Behaviour is guided by values and is represented by the term Ubuntu.
- Mbiti: the personhood and identity is anchored in his or her collective (communal)
existence and relatedness.
- Growth and development are linked closely to their kinship relationships.
Bame Nsamenang regards human development as social ontogenesis (development from
conception to death) because it is situated within the ecological and social environments.
He describes the human life span and life cycle as three phases of selfhood.
A spiritual selfhood begins with conception/ as a reincarnation of an ancestral spirit. It
end when the new-born’s umbilical stump falls off and then a name giving ceremony.
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A phase of social selfhood begins at birth (after the naming ceremony and ends at death).
The ancestral selfhood follows the biological death of the person.

1.6.7 The bigger picture
Table 1.6 Summary of the most important developmental perspectives
Although you do not have to study all the theories mentioned in this table for the
examination, it is important to take note of all the theories and how they are grouped
according to their main perspectives.

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