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Punjabi Tej K. Bhatia Descriptive Grammars Punjabi Punjabi is the language of the Punjab the land of five rivers*-of northern India and Pakistan. Primarily written in three distinct scripts, a unique feature of the language is that, along with Lahanda and the Western Pahan dialects, it is the only modern Indo-European language spoken in South Asia which is tonal in nature. It is recognized as one of the several national languages of India and Pakistan, and approximately forty-five million people speak Punjabi as either a first or second language This Descriptive Grammar accounts for the linguistic and sociolinguistic properties of Punjabi and Lahanda/Multani It explores the standard language, giving a comprehensive account of syntax, morphology and phonology With a descriptive, typological and cognitive examination of the language, this is the most up-to-date, comprehensive and authoritative description of modern Pun jabi to date This volume will be invaluable to students and researchers of linguistic theory and practice. Tej K. Bhatia is Associate Professor of Linguistics and South Asian Lan guages at Syracuse University, New York. He has published and taught exten sively in the field of linguistics and South Asian languages and linguistics. Currently, he is an Acting Director of the Cognitive Science Program at Syra cuse University. Descriptive Grammars Series Editor Bernard Comrie (University of Southern California) ADVISORY BOARD W. S. Alien, Cambridge University J T. Bendor Samuel, Summer Institute of Linguistics D C. Derbyshire, Summer Institute of Linguistics R M. W. Dixon. Australian National University M. E. Krauss. University of Alaska B. Knshnamurti. Osmania University Y. Lastra, National Autonomous University of Mexico S, A. Wurm, Australian National University ABKHAZ B. G. Hewitt KOBON J Davies MANGARAYI F Merlan TAMlt R. E. Asher WEST GREENLANDIC M. Fortescue JAPANESE J Hinds RUMANIAN G. Mallison MODERN GREEK B. D. Joseph and I Philippaki-Warburton AMELE J. Roberts BASQUE M Saltarelli GULF ARABIC Clive Holes KANNADA S. N Sridhar CATALAN J. I Hualde FINNISH H. Sulkala and M Karjalainen EDITORIAL STATEMENT Until quite recently, work on theoretical linguistics and work on language description proceeded almost entirely in isolation from one another. Work on theoretical linguistics, especially in syntax, concentrated primarily on English, and its results were felt to be inapplicable to those interested in describing other languages. Work on describing individual languages was almost deliberately isolationist, with the development of a different framework and terminology for each language or language group, and no feeding of the achievements of language description into linguistic theory Within the last few years, however, a major rapprochement has taken place between theoretical and descriptive linguistics In particular, the rise of language typology and the study of language universal have produced a large number of theoreticians who require accurate, well-formulated descriptive data from a wide range of languages, and have shown descriptive linguists that they can both derive benefit from and contribute to the development of linguistic theory. Even within generative syntax, long the bastion of linguistic anglocentrism, there is an increased interest in the relation between syntactic theory and a wide range of language types. For a really fruitful interaction between theoretical and descriptive linguistics, it is essential that descriptions of different languages should be comparable. The Questionnaire of the present series (originally published as Lingua, vol. 42 (1977), no. 1) provides a framework for the description of a language that is (a) sufficiently comprehensive to cover the major structures of any language that are likely to be of theoretical interest; (b) sufficiently explicit to make cross-language comparisons a feasible undertaking (in particular, through the detailed numbering key); and (c) sufficiently flexible to encompass the range of variety that is found in human language. The volumes that were published in the predecessor to the present series, the Lingua Descriptive Studies (now available from Routledge). succeeded in bridging the gap between theory and description: authors include both theoreticians who are also interested in description (e g. Peter Cole and Imbabura Quechua) and field-workers with an interest in theory (e g John Davies and Kobon) The aim of the Descriptive Grammars is thus to provide descriptions of a wide range of languages according to the format set out in the Questionnaire. Each language will be covered in a single volume. The first priority of the series is grammars of languages for which detailed descriptions are not at present available (e g. Nkore-Kiga). However, the series will also encompass descrip tions of better-known languages with the series framework providing more detailed descriptions of such languages than are currently available (as with the monographs of West Greenlandic and Kannada). Bernard Comrie Punjabi A cognitive-descriptive grammar Tej K. Bhatia London and New York First published 1993 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, 0X14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge Inc 270 Madison Ave, New York NY 10016 Reprinted 2000 Transferred to Digital Printing 2005 Routledge is an imprint of the Tai lor <i Francis Group <£> 1993 Tej K. Bhatia All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Bhatia, Tej Krishan Punjabi: Cognitive-Descriptive Grammar (Descnptive Grammars Series) I Title II Series 491 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Bhatia, Tej K. Punjabi: a cognitive-descriptive grammar/Tej K. Bhatia. p cm. — (Descnptive grammars) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Panjabi language —Morphology 2. Panjabi language—Grammar. I. Title. II. Series. PK2633.B45 1993 491\425-dc20 92-25918 ISBN CM 15-00320-2 TO BRAJ AND YAMUNA KACHRU CONTENTS Acknowledgement..................................................................................xvii Key to Abbreviations and symbols.......................................................jux Maps......................................................................................................xxii Introduction...........................................................................................xxv History of the language............................................................ xxv Lingua Questionnaire................................................................xxxii Transcription..............................................................................xxxiii Chan of Gurmukhi Alphabet.............................................. xxxiv SYNTAX ............................................................................................. 1 1.1 GENERAL QUESTIONS ................................................ 1 1.1.1 SENTENCE TYPES ..................................................... 1 1.1.1.1 Direct and indirect speech ........................................... 1 1.1.1.2 Interrogative sentences................................................ 4 1.1.1.2.1 Yes-no questions ..................................................... 4 1.1.1.2.1.1 Neutral questions ................................................ 4 1.1.1.2.1.2 Leading questions........................................................6 1.1.1.2.1.3 Alternative questions ........................................... 7 1.1.1.2.2 Question-word questions ...................................... 9 1.1.1.2.2.1 Constituents of the sentence that can be questioned 12 1.1.1.2.2.2 Position of the questioned element .......................27 1.1.1.2.3 Echo questions...........................................................28 1.1.1.2.3.1 Yes-no questions......................................................28 1.1.1.2.3.2 Question-word echo questions..................................29 1.1.1.2.3.3 Yes-no question echo-questions................................31 1.1.1.2.3 4 Question-word question echo-questions.................31 vii Contents 1.1.12.3.5-7 Elements of the sentence that can be questioned in echo-questions.............................................32 1.1.1.2.4 Answers.......................................................................32 1.1.1.2.4.1 Answers as distinct speech acts...............................32 1.1.1.2.4.2 Answers in the form of incomplete sentences . . 32 1.1.1.3 Imperative sentences ....................................................34 1.1.1.3.1 Imperative forms .........................................................34 1.1.1.3.1.1 The unmarked/tme imperative.................................35 1.1.1.3.1.2 Degree of imperative ..............................................38 1.1.1.3.2 Negative imperative ....................................................40 1.1.1.3.3 Other means of expressing the imperative..................40 1.1.1.4 Other distinct sentence-types..........................................41 1.1.1.5 Indirect speech acts ......................................................41 1.1.2 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES .........................................42 1.1.2.1 General markers of subordination.................................42 1.1.2.2 Noun clauses ...............................................................43 1.1.2.2.1 Marking of noun clauses ........................................43 1.1.2.2.2 Types of noun clauses ...............................................44 1.1.2.2.3 Indirect statements .....................................................46 1.1.2.2.4 Indirect questions ........................................................46 1.1.2.2.5 Indirect commands ....................................................49 1.1.2.2.6 Non-finite noun clauses ........................................49 1.1.2.2.7 Predicative nouns........................................................53 1.1.2.3 Adjective clauses (relative clauses)................................53 1.1.2.3.1 Marking of the finite/sentential relative clause .... 53 1.1.2.3.2 Restrictive and non-restrictive clauses .....................55 1.12.3.3 Position of the head noun ........................................56 1.1.2.3.4 Form of the relativized element ........................... 56 1.1.2.3.5 Position of the relativized element.............................57 1.1.2.3.6 Headless relative clauses..............................................58 1.1.2.3.7 Elements that can be relativized ..............................58 1.1.2.3.8 Movement of relativized element .............................66 1.1.2.3.9-K) Finite and non-finite relative clauses ..................67 1.1.2.4 Adverbial clauses ..........................................................67 1.1.2.4.1 Marking and position ................................................67 1.1.2.4.2 Different types of adverbial clauses ..........................67 1.1.2.4.2.1 Adverbial clauses of time .........................................67 1.1.2.4.2.2 Manner ......................................................................72 1.1.2.42.3 Purpose ......................................................................74 1.1.2.42.4 Cause clauses .........................................................75 1.12.42.5 Condition and concession clauses ...............77 viii Contents 1. 1.2.4.16 Result clauses...........................................................78 1.1.2.4.2.7 Clauses of degree....................................................79 1.1.2.5 Sequence of lenses..........................................................81 1.2 STRUCTURAL QUESTIONS............................................82 1.2.1 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE____82 1.2.1.1 Copular seniences...........................................................82 1.2.1.2 Verbal seniences ..............................................................85 11.1.3 Adverbials......................................................................91 1.2.2 ADJECTIVE PHRASES...................................................93 1.2.3 ADVERBIAL PHRASES .................................................95 1.2.4 POSTPOSITIONAL PHRASES.......................................96 1.2.4.1 Operational definition for postpositional phrases ... .96 1.2.4.2 Postpositional phrases and their arguments...................97 1.2.4.3 Modifiers of postpositions ............................................97 1.2.4.4 Postposition governing more than one case ................98 1.2.5 NOUN PHRASES.............................................................98 1.2.5.1 Operational definition for a noun phrase.......................98 1.2.5.2 Modifiers in a noun phrase ............................................98 1.2.5.3 Co-occurrence of more than one of the same type of modifier...........................................................101 1.2.5.4 Non-admissible combinations of types of modifiers . 102 1.2.5.5 Order of constituents in the noun phrase ...................102 1.3 COORDINATION .................................................................103 1.3.1.1 Sentence Coordination....................................................103 1.3.1.1.1 And’coordination......................................................103 1.3.1.1.2 But’coordination .......................................................106 1.3.1.2 Number of conjunctions in relation to number of elements coordinated........................................106 1.3.1.3 Means of coordinating the major categories of the sentence..................................................107 13.1.3.1 ‘And’coordination ...................................................107 13.1.3.2 'But'coordination.......................................................108 13.1.3.3 Or* coordination.........................................................109 13.1.4 Coordination and accompaniment...............................110 1.3.1.5 Structural parallelism and coordination.......................112 1.3.2.1 Omission of elements of sentence under identity in coordination.................................................115 1.3.3.1 -3 Omission of elements of major constituents of the sentence................................................116 IX