Psychology: The Science of Mind & Behaviour

1001 Pages·2015·26.08 MB·English

by  Richard Gross

gross
richard
PSYCHOLOGY
The Science of Mind and Behaviour
Seventh Edition
82997783144_7G1R82O9S7S3_47.ined_bT i t le1PG_V2.indd 1 170/142/0/250/1154 91:43:93 1AM
Dedication
To my beautiful daughters, T.N. and J.G., in the hope that, given time, love will prevail.
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© Richard Gross 2015
First published in 2015
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Printed in Italy
A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978 1471 829734
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Contents
Guided tour vi
Preface viii
PART 1: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
1 What is this thing called Psychology? 1
2 Theoretical approaches to Psychology 13
3 Psychology as a science 37
PART 2: THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR AND EXPERIENCE
4 The nervous system 51
5 Sensory processes 74
6 Parapsychology 89
7 States of consciousness and bodily rhythms 105
8 Addictive behaviour 125
9 Motivation 143
10 Emotion 159
11 Learning and conditioning 175
12 Application: Health Psychology 190
Part 3: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
13 Attention 217
14 Pattern recognition 234
15 Perception: Processes and theories 246
16 The development of perceptual abilities 264
17 Memory and forgetting 281
18 Language and thought 302
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19 Language acquisition 314
20 Problem-solving, decision-making and artificial intelligence 329
21 Application: Cognition and the law 345
PART 4: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
22 Social perception 363
23 Attribution 383
24 Attitudes and attitude change 394
25 Prejudice and discrimination 411
26 Conformity and group influence 431
27 Obedience 446
28 Interpersonal relationships 461
29 Aggression and antisocial behaviour 485
30 Altruism and prosocial behaviour 503
31 Application: the social Psychology of sport 519
PART 5: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
32 Early experience and social development 531
33 Development of the self-concept 554
34 Cognitive development 569
35 Moral development 589
36 Gender development 606
37 Adolescence 622
38 Adulthood 637
39 Old age 656
40 Application: exceptional development 672
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PART 6: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
41 Intelligence 689
42 Personality 713
43 Psychological abnormality: definitions and classification 736
44 Psychopathology 755
45 Treatments and therapies 779
46 Application: Criminological psychology 804
PART 7: ISSUES AND DEBATES
47 Bias in psychological theory and research 824
48 Ethical issues in psychology 837
49 Free will and determinism, and reductionism 855
50 Nature and nurture 870
Acknowledgements 884
References 887
Index 961
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GUIDeD toUR
Critical Discussion 50.2
Are shared environments really that
Helps you to analyse, evaluate and
assess the validity of this scientific unimportant?
information — a crucial component of Scarr (1992) acknowledges the influence of the
A level and undergraduate study. environment on behaviour but claims that, in reality,
the environment is very similar for many individuals.
According to the ‘average [. . .]
Research Update 42.1
Psychology is a research-driven field.
Freud and neuroscience
These updates let you see how scientific
explanations change in light of new As we noted in Chapter 2, support for certain
information, showing you ‘how aspects of Freud’s theories has been provided by the
science works’. relatively new sub-discipline of neuropsychoanalysis
(NP), one of the many spin-offs [. . .]
Cross-Cultural study 35.1
trobriand Island boys and their fathers
Understanding the cultural context of
(Malinowski, 1929)
scientific findings helps you to explain and
evaluate a variety of methods and results ● Among the Trobriand Islanders of Papua New
from different psychological studies. Guinea, boys were traditionally disciplined by
their maternal uncle (their mother’s brother),
rather than by their own [. . .]
Ask Yourself
With some key questions in mind
(if not always answers!) you will more ● Do you agree with Skinner’s claim that thoughts
easily understand the major studies and other ‘covert behaviours’ don’t explain
and theories. our behaviour (because they cannot determine
what we do)?
Case study 4.1
It can be hard to link theories to real life. the case of the phantom hand
Case studies give you concrete examples
Tom Sorenson lost a hand in a car accident, after
of people’s stories, and how they confirm or
which his arm was amputated just above the elbow.
challenge psychological research.
When his face was touched in various places, he
experienced [. . .]
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Key study 4.1
This feature explains the methods, When the left brain literally doesn’t know
results and implications of some of
what the left hand is doing (sperry, 1968)
the more iconic or innovative work in
● Participants sit in front of a screen, their hands
Psychology.
free to handle objects that are behind the screen
but which are obscured from sight.
Chapter summary
There is a lot to take in for your exams
● Biopsychology is the branch of neuroscience
and essays. This feature will help you
that studies the biological bases of behaviour.
revise, build up your knowledge of the key
Biopsychologists are only interested in biology for
points and how they fit together.
what it can tell them about behaviour and mental
processes.
Links with other topics/Chapters
Helps you evaluate a particular theory
or piece of research by understanding its Chapter 28 Babies’ sociability has its adult
connections with others. counterpart in the need for affiliation, the basis of
interpersonal attraction
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28 29
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PReFACe
By the time this 7th edition of Psychology: The show is that there’s always a ‘story’ behind a
Science of Mind and Behaviour is published, it will theory or chosen research project. Research
be 28 years since the first edition appeared (and doesn’t appear out of nowhere and what particular
30 years since the contract for that first edition Psychologists investigate isn’t a random event.
was signed!). Needless to say, much has changed So, every time you read about a particular study,
within Psychology in that time, and yet some of psychological concept or construct, or full-blown
the basic questions that researchers have been theory, remember that behind it are one or more
exploring – and philosophers before them – are human beings, each with their ‘story’ of how they
still being asked. came to be researching that topic rather than
Despite the advent of e-books and the evolution some other area of Psychology.
of electronic media in general, the task of the For the first time in this book, I’ve chosen to
textbook author has remained essentially the same. refer to the discipline of Psychology (and sub-
Something that you, as a student having to write disciplines) with an upper case ‘P’. This applies
essays, seminar papers, and dissertations, and I, as a also ‘Psychologists’. When used as an adjective
textbook author, have in common, is the challenge (‘psychological’), or when referring to what
of deciding what is best to include and exclude Psychologists actually study (various aspects of
within what are always finite resources – time, human and non-human psychology), a lower
money, words, and so on. Users of this book are case ‘p’ is used. This isn’t just a matter of stylistic
(mainly) students new to Psychology, who need to preference; distinguishing between ‘Psychology’
know something of its past in order to appreciate as a scientific discipline and ‘human psychology’
where it is now – and where it might be going in as what Psychologists investigate highlights the
the future. In order to make room for discussion of unique nature of Psychology: it’s where people
recent developments, I have continued what was study themselves as people, using the same human
started in the 6th edition, namely, to reduce the abilities that they (often) are investigating. Even
amount of detail when describing the older (but more importantly, what Psychologists tell us
never redundant) material. Also, I’ve sometimes about ourselves may actually change us, i.e. our
sign-posted the reader to alternative sources of psychology.
material, rather than providing a cursory summary Part of the appeal of previous editions was
of a particular study or theory. that they catered for the needs of students on a
One of the features new to the 6th edition, and wide range of courses, without being written
which has been retained in the 7th, is the ‘Meet specifically or exclusively for any one group. I
the Researcher’ feature. While these haven’t been hope – and trust – that the same can be said of
updated, in all cases their original contributions this 7th edition. As before, please let me know
remain as relevant and informative as they were what you think of my efforts (via the publisher) –
when they first appeared. As well as providing it’s not just students who need feedback!
additional material to what’s covered in the main
body of the textbook, what their contributions Richard Gross
viii
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CHAPteR 1
WHAt Is tHIs tHInG CALLeD PsYCHoLoGY?
A brief history
Classifying the work of Psychologists
IntRoDUCtIon and oVeRVIeW
Ask Yourself
● If you’re completely new to Psychology, what
do you expect it to consist of?
● If you’ve studied it before, how would you
define it and what’s the range of topics/
subjects it covers?
● How does it differ from other disciplines, such
as physiology, sociology and anthropology?
The opening chapter in any textbook is intended to
‘set the scene’ for what follows, and this normally
involves defining the subject or discipline. In the
Figure 1.1
case of Psychology, this isn’t as straightforward
as you might expect. Definitions of Psychology
A BRIeF HIstoRY
have changed frequently during its relatively short
history as a separate field of study; this reflects The word ‘psychology’ is derived from the Greek
different, and sometimes conflicting, theoretical psyche (mind, soul or spirit) and logos (knowledge,
views regarding the nature of human beings and the discourse or study). Literally, then, Psychology is the
most appropriate methods for investigating them ‘study of the mind’. The emergence of Psychology
(see Chapter 2). as a separate discipline is generally dated from 1879,
These theoretical differences partly reflect the when Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychological
complexity of the subject-matter. Perhaps more laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany.
importantly, there’s a very real sense in which we are Wundt and his co-workers were attempting
all ‘Psychologists’ in our everyday lives: Psychologists to investigate ‘the mind’ through introspection
as scientists/researchers use fundamental cognitive (observing and analysing the structure of their own
processes in order to investigate those same conscious mental processes). Introspection’s aim was
processes (such as perception and memory); hence, to analyse conscious thought into its basic elements
Psychologists (with an upper-case ‘P’) study human and perception into its constituent sensations, much
psychology (with a lower-case ‘p’), making the as chemists analyse compounds into elements.
relationship between the discipline and the subject This attempt to identify the structure of conscious
matter unique. However, there are important thought is called structuralism.
differences between the Psychologist-as-investigator Wundt and his co-workers measured and recorded
and the person-as-‘Psychologist’. the results of their introspections under controlled
Also, the boundaries between Psychology and other conditions, using the same physical surroundings,
subject disciplines aren’t clearly drawn, and what the same ‘stimulus’ (such as a clicking metronome),
this chapter aims to do is make them sufficiently the same verbal instructions to each participant, and
clear to enable you, the reader, who may be ‘visiting’ so on. This emphasis on measurement and control
Psychology for the first time, to find your way around marked the separation of the ‘new Psychology’ from
this book – and the subject – relatively easily. its parent discipline of philosophy.
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