Psychology for Cambridge International AS & A Level

294 Pages·2014·41.96 MB·English

by  Craig Roberts

for Cambridge
International
AS &A Level

Craig Roberts

•

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INTRODUCTION

This book has been \vritten as a companion to support you throughout your
Psychology International AS and A Level course.

The book is divided into two parts: one for the AS Level and one for the
A Level 1 he AS part \Viii guide you through all 20 Core Studies and the
A level part \Viii guide you through the t\vO options you have chosen to
study (fro1n the five available). 111ere are a range of activities throughout
the book Lo get you thinking psychologically which is ideal preparation for
the exanlinations. 111ere are also san1ple exa1nination questions for you to
answer.

There is an acco1npanying Revision Guide '"hich \Vil! cover marked student
exainples so you can practice anS\\tering exan1-style questions to the best of
your abilities. This '"ill be a separate book.

r

Craig is a freelance tutor and author of psychology tex'tbooks. He has been
teaching for over 20 years and is an experienced examiner \vith a number of
National and International examination boards.

I sin1ply have to thank everyone \\tho has made an impact on my life and
'"ho support nie through every venture I take on. 111is indudes my family,
closest friends and cat! I could and \vould not be doing this \Vithout any of
you. A special thank you has to go to all the teachers I trained in Florida in
February 2014 for niaking niy first training event brilliant
r \VOuld also like to thank Matt Jarvis for his kind permission to use his
material from OCR AS Psychology.

I

To Mum & Dad. Ahvays love you.

•

CONTENTS

Approaches and perspectives in psychology .......................................... v

Ho'v psychologists research ....................................................... J

issues and debates 'vithjn psychological research ........................ 7

0
Cognitive psychology .............................................................. I 3

Social psychology ................................................................... 29

Developn1ental psychology ...................................................... 47

0
Physiological psychology ......................................................... 65

The psychology of individual differences .................................. 87

AS-.Le·vel Exam Cent re .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . l 07

Psychology and education ..................................................... 111
0
Psychology and health ........................................................... 147

Psychology and environment ................................................. 177

Psychology ru1d models of abnormality ................................... 207
CD Psychology and organisations ................................................ 239

A-Le·vel Exan1 Centre ....................................................................... 275

•

APPROACHES
AND PERSPECTIVES
IN PSYCHOLOGY

There are n1any different ways in 1vhich psychologists try to explain
human and animal behaviour. 'These approaches and perspectives in
psychology forn1 the whole discipline of "psychology''. However, they
are all very diflerent and this chapter will cover ho1v these different types
of psychologist try to explain behaviour. TI1ere are five approaches and
two perspectives that CIE expect you to kno1v about. We will look at
each in turn highlighting their general assun1ptions, the n1ain research
meLhodology they use and 1vhich studies from AS-level fit into each one.

Cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychologists are interested in ho1v 1ve process information. They
look into ho1v 1ve input information, then ho1v 1ve process that information
and finally ho1v 1ve retrieve and/or use that information. Some cognitive
psychologists believe that the brain 1vorks like a computer follo1ving the
procedure of input-process/storage-output. Areas of interest include
memory and forget ting, perception, language and attention.

The AS-level studies listed in the Cambridge syllabus under this section are:

1. Mann, Vrij & Bull (2002)
2. Loftus & Pickrell (I 995)
3. Baron-Cohen et al (200 I)

4. Held & 1-iein ( 1963).

The niain research 111ethod used in this approach is laboratory experin1ents.

Many findings are based on
research conducted 1n a laboratory.
As variables are controlled it means
that findings are more likely to be
reliable. Therefore, it can be seen
as being a sc1ent1fic approach.

As cognitive psychologists are
investigating processed information
that cannot be seen directly, there
is still an element of guesswork
and inferences.

•

•

The approach is useful 1n terms
of being able to help improve
everyday life 1n humans by. for
example. improving memory or
improving eyewitness testimony

-·--·

Comparing the human information
processing system to that of
a computer 1s reduct1on1st. It
ignores the role of emotional and
social factors on how we process
information.

Social psychologists are interested in ho1v we '\vork" in the social 1vorld.
They look at ho1v individuals interact 1vith each other and ho1v 1ve interact
in "groups". Therefore, they look at the individual as an individual but also
as a group men1ber and see ho1v this affects behaviour. 'I hey also exan1ine
ho1v the role of culture and society aftects our behaviour. Areas of interest
include prejudice, obedience and confonnity.

The AS-level studies listed in the Cambridge syllabus under this section are:
1. Milgran1 (1963)

2. Haney, Banks & Zimbardo (1973)

3. Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin (1969)

4. Tajfel ( 1970).

The main research methods used in this approach are questionnaires
and interviews.

The approach does tend
to look at the individual "as
a whole" to try to explain
behaviour across situations.
Therefore. it is more holistic
rather than reductionist.

The approach is useful in
terms of being able to help
improve everyday life 1n
humans by, for example,
reducing prejudice or
explaining atrocities.

Development

A lot of evidence from this approach
is from studies that have used
questionnaires and 1nterV1ews. Therefore,
the validity may be reduced as what
people say they will do and what they
actually do can be very different

It can be very difficult sometimes to
distinguish between what is influenced
by the 1nd1v1dual and what is Influenced
by the situation people find themselves
in. This can make designing studies
difficult and then drawing the correct
conclusion may be difficult.

sychol

Development psychologists are interested in ho1v 1ve "develop" as a
person fron1 birth to death. Nlany development psychologists focus on
"child development" and what sorts of things affect ho1v a child develops
psychologically and socially. They also look at ho1v physical development
might affect psychological development. Ho"•ever, there are other
psychologists 1vho 1vill examine development over a lifespan. Therefore,
they may examine development from adolescence through early adulthood

into late adulthood. Areas of interest include moral development, cognitive
development and social developn1ent.

The AS-level studies listed in the Can1bridge syllabus under this section are:
1. Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961)

2. Freud ( 1909)
3. Langlois el al ( 1991)
4. Nelson (I 980).

The main research methods used in this approach are observations and
longitudinal studies.

Longitudinal studies are
an excellent way to assess
development over time with
participant variables being
controlled for. This makes findings
from these types or study more
valid as the same people are being
followed over a period or time.

Also, as we are following the same
people over time, we can examine
what is down to nature and what
is down to nurture in terms of
how these influence people's
developmental pathways as
humans.

Longitudinal studies can be
very time consuming and costly
and participants wHI drop out
(participant attrition can be high).
As a result, findings may be
difficult to generalise to outside
of the participants who are left as
there may only be a few and they
could be unique.

There may be ethical issues with
studying children over time. This
is because before they are 16
years old their parents have to give
informed consent. Therefore, the
children are not giving their own
informed consent and may never
want to take part in tests and studies.

Physiological psychology

Physiological psyd1ologists are interested in ho\v our biology affects
our psychology. TI1ey look at the role of things like genetics, brain
function, horn1ones and neurotransn1itters have on our behaviour. Many
physiological psychologists believe that our behaviour can be explained via
biological mechanisms more so than psychological mechanisn1s. However,
others believe that it niay be an interaction between the t\vo. Areas of
interest include origins of n1ental disorders, treatments of mental disorders,
sleep, circadian rhythms and localisation of brain function (\vhich parts of
the brain are responsible for di ffercnt behaviours).

The AS-level studies listed in the Cain bridge syllabus under this section are:
1. Schachter & Singer ( 1962)
2. Dement & Kleitman ( 1957)
3. Maguire, Fracko,viak & Frith ( 1997)
4. Den1atte, Osterbauer & Spence (2007).

•

•

'fhe main research method used in this approach is laboratory experiments.

Strengths
Weaknesses

The approach is very scientific as

1t uses methods such as laboratory
expenments, blood tests. brain
scanning, etc. These are highly
controlled methods that can easily
be tested for reliability. We can
draw cause-effect conclusions
more easily as a resull

As we are dealing with biological
mechanisms, it 1s an excellent way
to assess which of our behaviours
are due to nature and which are
due to nurture.

The approach can be seen as
being reduc1ion1st as it ignores
the roles of social and emotional
factors 1n our development.

As many studies take place under
controlled laboratory cond1llons.
many studies lack ecological
validity and mundane realism.
Therefore, some b1olog1cal
reactions may be tnggered
because of being In a controlled
environment and may not
necessarily be the same in a real-
world setting.

"--~~~~~~~~~~~~--'-~

The psychology of individual

er_

This approach looks at ho'"· as individuals, '"e differ fron1 one another.
Instead of looking for explanations that could explain hO\V lots of people
1nay behave, psychologists \vho research into this area look at \Vhat makes
the individual unique. Therefore, there are differences between people
that may be part of the san1e group. Rather than looking for general laws,
psychologists \Vho research into this area may focus more on \Vhat makes
the individual different from the others around him or her.

The AS-level studies listed in the Cambridge syllabus under this section are:
1. Rosenhan(l973)

2. Thigpen & Cleckley ( 1954)

3. Billington, Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright (2007)

4. Veale&Riley(2001)

•

This approach can be useful in
explaining differences between
individuals in the cause of
behaviours. These can be useful
during, for example, therapy so
the treatment can be tailored lo
the individual rather than following
general laws of behaviour.

Findings from studies may have
limited generalisability as they are
focusing on the individual rather
than a group or people. The people
being studied may be unique in
some way and therefore findings
have limited use.

This approach can be seen as
being reductionist as it ignores
the way we behave in groups and
follow group laws or behaviour.

The behaviourist perspective

Behaviourist psychologists are interested in \vays in \vhich both humans
and animals learn. They look into general la\vs that can apply to all species
and ho\v the experiences \Ve have mould our behaviour over time. There are
Lhree main areas \Vithin this perspective:

~ learning by the consequences of our behaviour (operant conditioning)

~ learning through association (classical conditioning)

~ learning through observation, imitation and modelling (social

learning).

Strict behaviourism follO\VS the idea that \Ve should "observe the observable"
and not examine mental processes as they cannot be directly seen.
Behaviours can be directly seen so we have objective measures of behaviour.
Areas of interest include behaviour modification, therapies for mental
health disorders or for prisoners, etc. and development of behaviours such
as aggression.

There are no nan1ed studies for this perspective but Bandura,
Ross & Ross ( 1961 ) can be used as an exan1ple of social learning.
The main research methods used in this perspective are laboratory
experin1ents and observations.

Strengths
Weaknesses

The perspective 1s very
objective as 1t "observes the
observable" - this means
that data is scientific and
quantitative and likely not to be
biased. This makes f1nd1ngs
from studies reliable.

The approach is useful 1n terms
or being able to help improve
everyday life 1n humans by, for
example, reducing phobias or
modifying a child's behaviour for
the better.

Parts of this perspective ignore the
role or social. cognitive and emotional
aspects or behaviour. Therefore it can
be seen as being reductionist in just
focusing on observable aspects and
1gnonng internal mechanisms such as
biology too.

Some psychologists disagree that
there are general laws that govern
animal and human behaviour -
humans are more complex than
rats, pigeons, dogs and cats so
generalising findings from animal
research to humans may not be valid.

The psychodynamic perspective

Psychodynan1ic psychologists are interested in bow our early lives and
our unconscious mind affect our behaviour. They look at the role of early
childhood development and hO\V trau1nas that occur at various stages may
affect adult personality. They also look at ho'v our unconscious mind (the
part of the n1ind that \ VC are una\vare of) affects our everyday behaviour. We
have structures of personality such as the id (driven by pleasure), tile ego
(driven by reality) and the superego (driven by morality). AU of these have
an influence on our behaviour. Areas of interest include development of

•

•

mental health disorders (e.g. phobias), dreaming and the trcatn1ent
of mental health disorders.

There are no named studies for this perspective but Freud ( 1909) is a
psychodynamic case study. The main research methods used in this
perspective are case studies and intervie\vS.

Strengths
Weaknesses

The approach is useful 1n terms
of being able to help improve
every day life in humans such as
helping to understand why we
have a mental health disorder and
then helping to overcome it.

Supporting evidence tends to
come from case studies which are
very detailed collecting qualitative
data. This should improve the
validity of findings as the whole
person Is examined rather than

Ideas such as those relaling to the
unconscious mind cannot be directly
tested and are therefore unscientific.
How can you assess something
that cannot be directly seen or
manipulated? It is an abstract
concept that might not even exist.

Many findings from this perspective
are based on case studies.

just one aspect of them.

These findings may be difficult to
generalise to a larger group of
people as the case studies may be
unique in some way.

~~~
..... ~
~~~~~~~~

HOW
PSYCHOLOGISTS
RESEARCH

There are 1nany different ways in \vhich psychologists
can collect information for their study. These are called
research n1ethods and it is up to psychologists to choose
the one they think is the n1ost appropriate for their
study. The 111ain ones are:

experiments (laboratory and field)

self-reports (questionnaires and interviews)

case studies

observations (naturalistic, controlled, participant).

As \veil as choosing the most appropriate research
nlethod, psychologists have to decide:

\vho the participants are (the sample) and ho\v they
are going to recruit (the san1pling technique)

if they are using an experiment, \vhich design of
study lo use (e.g. repeated measures, independent
groups or matched pairs)

v•bat the procedure of the study 1vill be for
participants including what apparatus is needed

the type of data they want to collect
(e.g. quantitative or qualitative).

RESEARCH METHODS

These take place in a situation or environment that
is artificial to participants in the study. There are nvo
main types of variable that need to be considered when
running any experiment:

Tndependent variable (IV)- the variable that
psychologists choose to manipulate or change.
This represents the different conditions that are
being compared in any study. So, for example, if a
psychologist wants t.o investigate 1ne1nory in school
children, then the variable that requires "changing"
is age. Therefore, age is the IV. However, the IV
requires some form of operationalisation. To do
this, the psychologist must clearly define \vhat the
different conditions are. For the example of memory
in school children the operationalised lV could be:
le,·el I = 5-6 years old and level 2 = 7- 8 years old.

Depe11de11t variable (DV) - the variable that
psychologists choose to measure. It is ahvays
hoped that the IV is directly affecting the DV in
an experi111ent. Also, the DV needs son1e form
of operationalisation. To do this, psychologists
must dearly define ho\v they will nieasure. For
the example of men1ory in school children the
operationalised DV could be the an1ount ofiten1s
that a child remembers fron1 a tray of objects
(n1axiJnum 25).

The psychologist 1\!iJI atten1pt to control as many
other variables as possible to try to ensure that it is
the IV directly affecting the DV. There are different
types of variable that can affect the DV that have to be
controlled if possible. One of these is called participant
variables. These are the traits and behaviours that
participants bring to the study that may affect
the DV (e.g. level of intelligence, prejudices or 11'-1
any previous experiences).
....

•

•

• •
•
•

Laboratory experiments
have high levels of
control and so can be
replicated to test for
reliability.

As laboratory
experiments lake place

1n an artificial setting, it
is said that they can lack
ecological validity.
As laboratory experiments
have high levels of
control, researchers can
be more confident 1l is

Many laboratory
experiments can make
participants take part 1n
tasks that are nothing
like real-life ones so they
lack what is known as
·mundane realism".

the IV directly affecting
the DV.

FIELD EXPERIMENTS

These are experin1enls that take place in participants'
own natural environrnent rather than in an artificial
laboratory. The researcher still tries to n1anipulate
or change an JV while n1easuring the DV in an
attempt to see ho\v the IV affects the DV. There is an
attempt to control other variables that could affect
the DV. One of these is called situational variables.
These are variables from the setting that

. Field
might affect the OV, such as the \veatber
or time of day.

•

As field experiments
Situational variables can
take place In a
be difficult to control so

realistic setting, it 1s
sometimes 1t is difficult to

said that they have
know if it is lhe IV affecting
ecological validity.
the DV. It could be an
As the participants
uncontrolled variable causing

will not know they
the DV to change.
are taking part in a
As the participants will not
study, there will be
know they are taking part In

few or no demand
a study, there are issues with
characteristics so
breaking ethical guidelines

behaviour is more
including informed consent

likely to be natural
and deception.
and valid.

QUESTIONNAIRES

When a study uses a questionnaire, it is asking
participants to ans\ver a series of questions in the
\VTitten forn1. There are various types of
question that a psychologist can use in a
questionnaire-based study:

Quant

Likert scales: these are statements that participants
read and then stale \vhether they strongly agree,
disagree, etc. For exa1nple, the statement might
be "0\vning a pet is good for your psychological

health~

Rating scales: these are questions or state1nents
where participants give an ans1ver in the form of
a nu1nber. For example: "On a scale of 0- J 0, ho1v

happy are you today?"

Open-ended: these are questions that allow
participants to develop an answer and 1vrite it in

their 01vn words. 111ey write sentences to ans1ver
the question. For example: "Can you tell me about a
happy childhood n1emory?"

Closed: these are questions where there are a set

amount of anS\vers and participants choose which
ans1ver best fits hO\V they 1vant to respond. For
example: "Pick the emotion that best describes ho1v
you feel today: happy, sad, cheerful, moody''.

Participants may be
Participants may give
more likely to reveal
socially desirable
truthful answers in a
answers as they want
questionnaire as it does
to look good rather than
not involve talking face
giving truthful answers.
lo face with someone.
This lowers the validity

A large sample of
of findings.

participants can answer
If the questionnaire has

the questionnaire
a lot of closed questions
in a short time. This
then participants might

should increase the
be forced into choosing
representativeness and
an answer that does not

generalisability of the
reflect their true opinion.
findings .

INTERVIEWS

These are similar to questionnaires but answers are in
the spoken not \Vritten form. lntervie\vers ask a series
of questions using the types listed above. They may
record the intervie\V so they can go back and transcribe
exactly \vhat participants said. Depending on \vhat the
psychologist is studying, there are three main types of
iJ1tervie\v:

Structured: thi~ is when a set order of questions is
used. Each participant \viii be asked the questions in
that order.

Semi-structured: there are certain questions that
must be asked. Ho1vever, the intervie1ver can
ask then1 in a different order and/or ask other
questions to help clarify a participant's response.

Unstructured: this is 1vhen the intervie1.ver has
a theme or topic that needs to be discussed.
The intervie1.ver may have an initial question

Interview

to begin the interview but each
subsequent question is based on the
response given by the participant.

If the interview has a lot
of open questions then
participants will reveal
more of the reasons why
they behave 1n such a
way or have a certain
opinion

Participants might be
less likely to give truthful
answers (maybe due to
social desirability) as
they are actually face to
face with the interviewer
and might not want to be
judged negatively.

CASE STUDIES

This is not a "true" research 111ethod as it utilises other
methods to collect the data. A case study examines

Case

a single person or a unit of people (e.g. a
family) in depth. There may be so1nething
unusual about the "case" (e.g. a trauma
or a mental health issue). ·n1e psychologist \vill use
questionnaires, intervie\.vs and observations to collect
the data.

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As psychologists
using case studies
are focusing on one
individual (or unit of
individuals) they can
collect rich, in-depth
data that have details

This makes the f1nd1ngs
more valid.
Participants are usually
studied as part of their
everyday life which
means that the whole
process tends lo
have some ecological
validity.

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As psychologists using
case studies are focusing
on one 1nd1vidual (or unit
or individuals), the case
may be unique. This
makes generalisations
quite difficult.

As these partic1 pants
are studied in depth, an
attachment could form
between them and the
psychologist which could
reduce the objectivity of
the data collection and
analysis of data. This
could reduce the validity
or the findings.

OBSERVATIONS

This research method involves \Vatching and
observing people or animals and their behaviours.
There are many different types of observation, as
highlighted belo"'· Ho1vever, some elements are core
to observations in general. Prior to observing, the
psychologist must create a belravioural clrecklist (calJed
an etlrogra111 if observing non-humans). This checklist
must name each behaviour that the psychologist is
expecting see. Jn addition, a picture of the behaviour
happening and a brief description of it is useful. This
makes sure that if there is more than one observer,
they are looking for the san1e behaviours. The
behavioural checklist or ethogran1 nlust be "tested"
before the main observation to ensure that all potential
behaviours are covered tind the observers can use the
checklist or ethogn1n1 successfully. 111is is called a piJot
observation. Additional behaviours may be added to
the checklist or ethogram after this process.

These are observations that take place in a person's or
anin1al's O\Vn natural environment.

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These are observations that take place in a controlled
setting. An example could be in a laboratory roon1 '"ith
the observers being behind a one-\vay mirror so they
cannot be seen observing.

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These are observations in \vhich psychologists become a
part of the group they '"ish lo observe. This can be overt
(the group of participants kno'" \vho the psychologist
is and that they are being observed) or covert
1!11 (the group do not kno\v that a psychologist is
~
in the group observing 1hen1).

If participants are
unaware that they
are being observed
they should behave
"naturally". This
increases the
ecological vahd1ty of the
observation.

As behaviours are
·counted" and are
hence quantitative, the
process 1s objective
and the data can be
analysed statistically
with minimal bias.

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If participants are aware
that they are being
observed they may not
act "naturally" and may
show more socially
desirable behaviours.
This reduces the validity
of the findings.

It may be difficult to
replicate a naturalistic
study as many variables
cannot be controlled.
This reduces the
reliability of the study.

PARTICIPANTS AND
SAMPLING

Participants are the people who choose to take part
in a study. The researcher nn1st decide on a target
population (TP). This is the group of people that the
psychologist \van ts to study in the hope that the findings
can generalise to and be representative of that TP. For
example, if a psychologist \Vants to investigate memory
in school children then the TP might be children aged
5- 8 years old. There are different sanipling techniques

that a psychologist can use to help recruit participants
from the TP. The main ones are highlighted belo\v.

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This technique involves researchers recruiting
participants \vho happen to be around at the time
they need participants. Once the correct number have
been chosen and have con1pleted the study, no more
participants are asked.

Self-selected or
i

This technique involves researchers advertising for
participants. It is frequently used in universities to
recruit participants for a range of studies. Therefore.
participants choose whether they \Vant to participate
or not.

This technique involves every participant in the TP
having an equal chance of being chosen. If the TP is
sn1all then potential participants can be numbered
and chosen fro1n a hat. If the TP is large, all potential
participants can be numbered but a random number
generator can be used to select the sample.

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This technique involves recruiting a sample that is a
mini version of the TP. Therefore, researchers recruit
pa1ticipants fron1 each nlajor stratun1 in
the TP (e.g. age groups, gender and
ethnicity). Each stratun1 nlust reflect the

Sample

TP - for example, if the TP has 65 per cent fe1nales
then the san1ple should be 65 per cent female.

v\lhen evaluating these techniques 1ve can split
them into representative sa111pling and non-
representative san1pling. Rane.lorn and stratified
san1pling are representative \Vhereas opportunity
and self-selected or volunteer san1pling are non-
representative .

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The researcher can
generalise to the TP
with more confidence.
This is because the
sample is more likely
to be representative of
the TP.

Large numbers of
participants can be
obtained relatively
quickly and easily.
People are more
likely to participate
if they have already
volunteered so the
drop-out rate should
be lower.

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Obta1n1ng details of the
TP to use to select the
sample may be difficult
(e.g. lists of people in the
TP or proportions of each
stratum).

Researchers cannot
guarantee a representative
sample (as with random
sampling) - for instance,
alt those chosen could
be of one gender - and
with both techniques
researchers may have
a "perfect" sample but
participants still might not
take part.

Researchers are unlikely
to gain a wide variety
of participants to allow
for generalisation (for
opportunity sampling they
wilt go for one type or person
in the main whereas for
volunteer sampling only a
certain type of person \Viii
volunteer for a particular
study).

DESIGN OF STUDY
(EXPERIMENTAL OR
PARTICIPANT DESIGN)

ff psychologists choose to use an experiment, then they
have to decide on an e..xperimental (participant) design.
This refers to ho\v you allocate your participants to the

varying conditions of your experiment.
There are three different designs .

Design

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This is \Vhen a participant only takes part in one
level of the IV. lf the IV is naturally occurr ing (e.g.
gender) then an experin1enter 11111st use this type of
design. Other examples of naturally occurring IVs are
gender and age. In a true independent groups design,
participants are randornly allocated to one level of the
IV (so they get an equal chance of being placed in any
level of your IV).

As participants only take
part in one condition
they are less likely to
guess the aim of the
study therefore reducing
the potential effects of
demand characteristics.

As participants only take
part in one condition
there are no order
effects that can reduce
the validity of findings.

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There may be a problem
with participant variables
affecting the DV rather
than the IV - even by
chance, all people of
a certain personality
might form one condition
and all people with a
different personality
might form the other
condition - it could be
personality affecting the
DV rather than the IV.

More participants are
required for this type
of design compared to
repeated measures.

This is when a participant takes part in nil of t he levels of
the JV. This can 110/ be used if the IV is naturally occurring
(e.g. you cannot be a male and a fe111ale at the same
ti1ne!). Researchers musl use co1111terbala11cing, which is
sometin1es called an ABBA design. For example, 50 per

cent of participants do level A then level B of the IV and

the other 50 per cent do level B then A.

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