Psychology and the Teacher

505 Pages·67.508 MB·English

by  Child Dennis.

Contents
Preface to 1s t Edition xiv
Preface to 8th Edition xvi
Part One INTRODUCTION
1
Psychology and Education
Th-e- -s--tu--d--y.- -o--f : s~-chology
A'pproaches to psychology
BranchesOfPsychology
Educational psychology
A definition
What this book is about
Part Two DEVELOPMENT
2
The Nervous System 15
Organization of the nervous system 17
Receptors 20
Vision 21
Hearing 22
Touch 22
Transmission 23
The brain 25
Overall structure 25
The brain stem 27
Hypothalamus 28
Thalamus 29
The limbic system 29
Cerebellum (or little brain) 30
Cerebral hemispheres 30
Brain size and laterality 31
Size 31
Laterality 31
Discovering how the brain works 34
Memory and the brain 37
Emotion and the brain 38
·
VI Contents
Heredity and environments 42
Inheritance 42
Environments - physical and social 44
The impact of nature and nurture (Plomin et al. 2001 and Plomin 2004) 46
Sex and gender 46
Maturation 48
3
Attention and Perception 54
The meaning of sensation, attention and perception 55
Attention 56
Broadbent's filter theory 57
Attention and the brain 59
The factors which influence attention 59
Set 62
Attention and the teacher - getting 'set' 63
Perception - 67
The nature of perception 68
Visual illusions and perceptual constancy 71
Perceptual style 72
The search for meaning 73
Perception and the teacher 73
4
Concept Formation and Cognitive Development 79
Concepts 81
Theories and definitions 81
Imagery 83
Abstract concepts 84
Propositional and imaginal thought 85
Some characteristics of concepts 85
Piaget's theory of cognitive development 87
Piaget's stages of development 90
Some criticisms of Piaget's theory 100
Implications of Piaget's work for the teacher 102
Information-processing approach to cognitive development 103
Concept attainment 104
Vygotsky (1896-1934) 104
Bruner's strategies 106
5
Language, Literacy and Numeracy 114
Characteristics of spoken language 115
The functions of spoken language 117
Egocentric and socialized speech 117
Language acquisition 118
The onset of language 119
Vocabulary growth 123
Contents VII
language and thought 126
Origins of language and thought 127
Cognitive growth and representation 129
language and meaning 131
Non-verbal communication 133
Teaching language skills -I iteracy 135
In the home 135
At school 139
Part Three learning
6
learning Theory and Practice 159
The task of learning theorists for teachers 161
Two approaches to learning 162
The behaviourists (or connectionists) 163
1. B. Watson (1878-7958) 163
E. L. Thorndike (1874-7949) 164
I. P Pavlov (1849-7936) 164
C. L. Hull (1884-7952) 167
B. F. Skinner (1904-90) 168
The cognitive approach 170
Learning theories and teaching children 172
Motivation 173
Habits and learning sets 173
Knowledge of results 174
Whole or part learning 175
Schematic versus rote learning 175
Mental exercise 176
Closure 177
'Insightful' learning (Roitblat 7985) 178
Computer-based education (Merrill et al. 7996) 178
7
learning and Memory 189
Information-processing model of memory 191
Encoding 191
Storage 192
Sensory register 192
Short-term or working memory (STM) 192
Long-term memory (LTM) 194
Explicit (declarative) and implicit (procedural or non-declarative) memory 196
Retrieval (recall, remembering, forgetting) 199
Forgetting 200
A curve of forgetting 201
Access and storage failure 203
Reminiscence 203
VIII Contents
Massed and distributed practice 204
Serial learning 204
Approaches to learning 206
Learning to learn (metacognition) 206
Study problems 208
Organization 208
Place of study 208
Time of day and length of study 209
For parents 209
For pupils - from teachers (Goacher and Reid 1983) 211
Personal, social and academic problems 212
The peer group 213
Meaningfulness of task 213
Revision 214
Whole' and 'part' learning 215
Transfer of training 216
An overview: Gagne's conditions of learning 217
8
Human Motivation 225
Motivation theories 227
Instinct theories 227
Drive and need theories 231
Cognitive theories 234
Common ground between theories 237
Motivation applied in education 238
A pragmatic view of needs: Maslow's hierarchy 239
Changing emphasis from needs to goals 242
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation 243
Achievement motivation 251
Expectancy 257
Attribution theory and expectation 258
Drive and performance 262
Stress 264
Definition 264
Stress in teachers 265
Stress in pupils 269
Part Four Individual Differences
9
Human Intelligence 281
General cognitive ability (intelligence) 282
Defining intelligent behaviour 283
Intelligence A, Band C 285
Information processing and intelligence 286
Multiple intelligences (Gardner 1999) 287
.
Contents IX
288
Intelligence testing
The work of Binet 288
Modern test design 290
Intelligence test items 296
298
Some uses of intelligence tests
Verbal group tests 299
Non-verbal group tests 299
Individual tests 299
Selection tests 300
Tests for babies 301
Factors influencing measured general cognitive ability 301
Brain size and other biological factors 301
Age 303
Sex and gender differences in psychometric intelligence 305
Practice and coaching 306
Race, home and school 307
Comparing genetic and cultural influences - heredity and environment 309
312
The structure of abilities
10
324
The Gifted and Talented
326
Processes leading to exceptional ability
Defining and assessing the qualities of giftedness 327
Performance on ability tests (see Chapter 9) 328
Trait creativity - using divergent thinking tests 331
Divergent thinking and intelligence 334
Divergent thinking and subject bias 336
Talent 337
Recent developments 339
341
Educating gifted and talented children
11
348
Special Educational Needs
351
The Warnock Report
Code of Practice (DfES 2001 b) 352
353
SEN in state schools
Statutory assessment of, and statement for, SEN 355
Psychologists in the service of education 356
Assessment 356
Statements of special educational need (statementing) 357
359
Communication and interaction
360
Cognition and learning
Mild and moderate learning difficulties 360
Severe, profound and specific learning difficulties 362
Dyslexia, dyscalculia and autism 364
Behaviour, social and emotional development 366
368
Sensory and physical needs
X Contents
Sensory difficulties 368
Physical difficulties 368
Medical conditions 369
12
Personality, Learning and Teaching Styles 374
Theories of personality 376
Naive approaches to personality 377
The humanist approaches to personality 379
Psychoanalytic theories of personality 382
Social learning theories 386
Trait theories of personality 387
The assessment of personality 393
Sheldon's typology of physique and personality 394
Physical experiments and personality (Mangan 1982) 394
Self-rating inventories of personality (psychometrics) 395
Attitude and interest inventories 396
Projection techniques 398
Self -concept 400
Personality and school achievement 402
Traits and school achievement 402
Type A behaviour (personality) 403
Learning and teaching styles 404
Styles and pupil performance 406
13
Psychology and Career Choice 416
Background to the present position 417
Theories of careers development 418
Trait-and-factor theories 420
Rodger's Seven Point Plan 420
Holland's theory 426
Developmental theories 427
Ginzberg's theory 427
Super's view of occupational development 433
Person-centred approaches 435
Goal-centred approaches 436
Careers education and guidance in schools 436
Government guidance 437
Career, sex and gender issues 438
Careers teachers!co-ordinators 439
Part Five Classroom and Curriculum Management and Assessment
14
Effective Classroom Strategies 447
Cognitive psychology - models of instruction (teaching) 448
Entry predispositions ((1) and (2) in Figure 14.1) 450
.
Contents XI
Instruction or teaching process ((3), (4) and (5) in Figure 74.7) 451
Learning outcomes 452
Discovery, guided discovery and expository methods of teaching 452
Impact of these methods on British education 455
456
J!J.di~g~gno~Js
Behaviour modification: social and academic learning 456
"- Reinforcement - rewarding and/or ignoring behaviour 457
Modelling 460
Shaping methods in the classroom 462
Token economies 463
Applied behavioural methods in classroom management 464
Class management strategies 466
--------{eadei5hip - 466
Leadership and exercising control 467
Group management strategies 469
Teacher's clarity of exposition 471
15
The Curriculum Process 476
The meaning of curriculum process 478
Curriculum interpretation 480
Content-based curriculum 480
Process-based curriculum 481
Product-based curriculum 482
Objectives 482
Bloom's taxonomy (7956, 1964 and 1976) 483
Task analysis 483
Defining objectives 484
Criticisms of behavioural objectives 486
Knowledge or subject content 486
Learning experiences 488
Evaluation 489
Curriculum planning and the teacher 490
Curriculum trends 490
The National Curriculum (Moon 2001) 492
16
Educational Assessment 497
Classroom assessment practices 499
Distinction between assessment and evaluation 499
Purposes of assessment in schools 500
Evaluating teaching 502
Major reasons for assessment 505
Attainment (achievement) 505
Diagnosis 505
Prediction 506
Providing and maintaining standards - targets and benchmarks 506
XII Contents
Motivation 507
Development 508
Social (and administrative) engineering 508
Problems associated with assessment 508
Reliability
509
Validity 512
Comparability and value added
513
The examinee 514
Curriculum 516
Sex differences in academic achievement 516
Methods of assessment in use 518
Conventional written examinations 518
Objective-type examinations 519
Continuous (intermittent) assessment 523
Oral and practical examinations 524
Case history and interpretive questions 525
Standardized tests 525
Grade-related criterion tests 526
Checklists and rating scales 527
Impression marking 528
Advantages and limitations of objective-type examinations 529
Advantages 529
Limitations 530
Assessing, recording and reporting achievement 531
Assessing (Open University series starting in
1993 - see 'Further reading') 531
Profiles and records of achievement 532
Part Six Educational Research and Test Design
17
Research in Education 543
Studying human behaviour 544
Scientific method 544
Naturalistic research 545
Styles of educational research 546
Experimental research 546
Correlational research 547
Ex post facto research 549
Survey research 550
Ethnographic research 550
Case study research 551
Historical research 552
Action research 552
Meta-analysis 553
Limitations of research in educational pyschology 554
Contents XIII
Decision-making from educational research 555
eading the research literature 557
8
Standardization and Item Analysis 562
Standardization of examination marks 563
Tabulation 563
Graphical representation 565
Distributions 565
Means 567
Modes and medians 569
Standard deviation 570
Standardization 572
Cumulative frequency 572
Standard scores and percentage of a population 574
Item analysis 575
Test blueprint (Wood and Skurnik 1969) 575
Test item design 577
Index of Names 583
Index of Subjects 594