Psychology: An Introduction

721 Pages·2012·32.92 MB·English

by  Benjamin B. Lahey

Psychologyan IntroductIon

Benjamin B. Lahey

Psychologyan IntroductIon

9 780078 035166

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ISBN 978-0-07-803516-6
MHID 0-07-803516-3

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Lahey

www.mhhe.com/lahey11e

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Rev.confi rming Pages

3.1 Use critical thinking effectively.
3.2 Engage in creative thinking.
3.3 Use reasoning to recognize, develop, defend, and criticize
arguments and other persuasive appeals.
3.4 Approach problems effectively.

● Ch 1: Goals of Psychology, p. 3 Thinking Critically about Psychology,
p. 4, 13, and 19

● Ch 2: Basic Concepts of Research, p. 25-7; Thinking Critically about
Psychology, p. 40 and 43

● Ch 3: Thinking Critically about Psychology, p. 55, 61, 76, and 81

● Ch 4: Thinking Critically about Psychology, p. 98, 101, 104, 110, and 116

● Ch 5: Thinking Critically about Psychology, p. 124, 132, 136, 144, 147,
and 157

● Ch 6: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 166, 177, 181, and 188

● Ch 7: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 203, 214, 217, and 225

● Ch 8: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 243, 251, and 256

● Ch 9: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 269, 277, 282, and 298;
Thinking and Problem Solving: Using Information to Reach Goals,
p. 269-76; Intelligence: The Sum Total of Cognition, p. 282-94

● Ch 10: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 310, 315, 325, 330,
and 339; Adolescent Development, p. 325-9

● Ch 11: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 357, 366, 375, 385,
and 389

● Ch 12: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 400, 410, 414, 418,
and 422

● Ch 13: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 436, 443, 447, and 454

● Ch 14: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 465, 475, 487, 492,
and 495

● Ch 15: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 505, 508, 515, and 522

● Ch 16: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 537, 548, 551, and 559;
Groups and Social Infl uence, p. 527-36; Attitudes and Persuasion,
p. 538-46

● Ch 17: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 571, 587, 592, and 596

3

CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientifi c approach to solving problems

related to behavior and mental processes.

4.1 Describe major applied areas of psychology (e.g., clinical, counsel-
ing, industrial/organizational, school, health).
4.2 Identify appropriate applications of psychology in solving problems.
4.3 Articulate how psychological principles can be used to explain
social issues and inform public policy.
4.4 Apply psychological concepts, theories, and research fi ndings as
these relate to everyday life.
4.5 Recognize that ethically complex situations can develop in the
application of psychological principles.

● Ch 1: Goals of Psychology, p. 3; Contemporary Perspectives and
Specialty Areas in Psychology, p. 13-18; What We Know about Human
Behavior: Some Starting Places, p. 19-21

● Ch 2: Application of Psychology, p. 44-5

● Ch 3: Application of Psychology, p. 82-5

● Ch 4: Application of Psychology, p. 117

● Ch 6: Application of Psychology, p. 189-91

● Ch 7: Theoretical Interpretations of Learning, p. 217-24; Application
of Psychology, p. 226

● Ch 8: Application of Psychology, p. 257-61

● Ch 9: Thinking and Problem Solving: Using Information to Reach
Goals, p. 269-276; Application of Psychology, p. 299-301

● Ch 10: Application of Psychology, p. 341-4

● Ch 11: Application of Psychology, p. 390-1

● Ch 12: Personality Assessment: Taking a Measure of the Person,
p. 419-21

● Ch 13: Coping With Stress, p. 444-447; Changing Health-Related
Behavior Problems, p. 448-51; Human Diversity: Psychology and
Women’s Health, p. 451-4; Application of Psychology, p. 455-6

● Ch 14: Defi nition of Abnormal Behavior, p. 459-64; Sexual
Dysfunction and Sexual Health, p. 492-4

● Ch 15: Psychoanalysis, p. 500-504; Humanistic Psychotherapy,
p. 505-7; Cognitive Behavior Therapy, p. 508-14; Group and Family
Therapy, p. 515-6; Medical Therapies, p. 518-21; Application of
Psychology, p. 523-4

● Ch 17: Applied Fields of Psychology, p. 563; Psychology and
Work, p. 571-86; Psychology and Law, p. 587-91; Psychology and
Education, p. 592-5

APA UNDERGRADUATE LEARNING GOALS AND OUTCOMES
PSYCHOLOGY CONTENT

4

APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY

Understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues.

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TM

eleventh edition

Psychology

An Introduction

Benjamin B. Lahey

University of Chicago

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TM

PSYCHOLOGY, 11E

Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Lahey, Benjamin B.
Psychology : an introduction / Benjamin Lahey.—11th ed.
p. cm.
Summary: “A contemporary take on a time tested classic. Students will master the central concepts of
psychology with the new 11th edition of Psychology from Benjamin Lahey. The 11th edition has been
thoroughly updated to include the latest research with an emphasis on Chapters 6 (Consciousness),
10 (Development) 14 (Abnormal) and 16 (Social Psychology). Lahey weaves scholarship based on
empirical research throughout the text, ensuring an accurate portrait of contemporary psychology. The
text’s student-friendly writing, clear chapter openers, and fresh applications make the material more rele-
vant to students than ever before, and the proven learning system ensures that all students will grasp the
concepts presented in the book. Lahey’s hallmark emphasis on diversity and culture remains integrated
throughout the text, making this the text for a well rounded introduction to all areas of psychology”—
Provided by publisher.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-07-803516-6 (pbk. : acid-free paper)
1. Psychology—Textbooks. I. Title.
BF121.L214 2011
150—dc22

2011016237

www.mhhe.com

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For Megan, Ted, Erin, Clare, Eamonn, Riley, Hannah, Miller, Mollie,
and Kate.

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vi

Preface xvii
Content Changes xxiii
Before You Begin: Study Skills for Success xxv

part one Introduction and Foundations

chapter one
Introduction to Psychology 1

chapter two
Research Methods in Psychology 24

chapter three
Biological Foundations of Behavior 47

chapter four
Interplay of Nature and Nurture 90

part two Awareness

chapter five
Sensation and Perception 120

chapter six
States of Consciousness 162

part three Learning and Cognition

chapter seven
Basic Principles of Learning 193

chapter eight
Memory 228

chapter nine
Cognition, Language, and Intelligence 263

part four Developmental Psychology

chapter ten
Developmental Psychology 303

part five The Self

chapter eleven
Motivation and Emotion 349

chapter twelve
Personality 394

part six Health and Adjustment

chapter thirteen
Stress and Health 424

chapter fourteen
Abnormal Behavior 458

chapter fifteen
Therapies 497

part seven Social Context

chapter sixteen
Social Psychology 526

chapter seventeen
Psychology Applied to the Environment and to Professions 561

Glosssary G-2
References R-2
Credits C-1
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-2

Brief Contents

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vii

Preface xvii

Content Changes xxiii

Before You Begin: Study Skills for Success xxv

part one
Introduction
and Foundations

chapter one
Introduction to Psychology
1

Psyche 1 Science 5 Psychology 1

Defi nition of Psychology 2

Goals of Psychology 3

Founding the Science of Psychology 4

Nature of Conscious Experience 5

Wundt, Titchener, and Structuralism 5
J. Henry Alston 5
Max Wertheimer and Gestalt Psychology 6
Functions of the Conscious Mind 6

William James and Functionalism 6
Studies of Memory: Hermann Ebbinghaus
and Mary Whiton Calkins 7
Cognitive Psychology 8
Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory 8

Ivan Pavlov 8
John B. Watson and Margaret Floy Washburn 9
Social Learning Theory 9
Nature of the “Unconscious Mind” 9

Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis 9
Humanistic Psychology and the Unconscious Mind 10
Psychometrics: Alfred Binet 10

Neuroscience Perspective 10

Contemporary Perspectives and Specialty Areas in
Psychology 13

Sociocultural Perspective 13

Cultural Relativity 14
Sociocultural Factors in the History of Psychology 15

Basic and Applied Areas in Modern Psychology 16

Basic Areas of Modern Psychology 17
Applied Areas of Modern Psychology 17
Relationship between Psychology and Psychiatry 18

What We Know about Human Behavior:
Some Starting Places 19

SUMMARY 21

VISUAL REVIEW OF HISTORICAL TIME LINE 23

chapter two
Research Methods
in Psychology
24

Prologue 24

Basic Concepts of Research 25

Empirical Evidence and Operational Defi nitions 25

Theories and Hypotheses 26

Representativeness of Samples 26

Importance of Replication in Research 27

Research Methods 27

Descriptive Studies 27

Survey Method 27
Naturalistic Observation 28
Clinical Method 29
Correlational Studies 29
Formal Experiments 32

Elements and Logic of Formal Experiments 33
Placebo Control in Formal Experiments 35
Blind Formal Experiments 35
Describing and Interpreting Data 36

Descriptive Statistics 36
Descriptive Statistics in Everyday Life 37
Reaching Conclusions from Data 38
Ethical Principles of Research 40

Ethics of Research with Human Participants 40

Ethics of Research with Nonhuman Animals 41

APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 44

SUMMARY 45

Contents

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viii
contents

chapter three
Biological Foundations
of Behavior
47

Prologue 47

Nervous System: Biological Control Center 48

Neurons: Primary Units of the Nervous System 49

Parts of Neurons 49
Neural Transmission 50
Myelin Sheath and Neural Transmission 51
Neurotransmitters and Synaptic Transmission 52
Glial Cells 52

Divisions of the Nervous System 56

Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System 57

Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System 58

Structures and Functions of the Brain 61

Hindbrain and Midbrain: Housekeeping Chores
and Refl exes 61

Forebrain: Cognition, Motivation, Emotion, and Action 62

Thalamus, Hypothalamus, and Limbic System 62
Cerebral Cortex: Sensory, Cognitive, and Motor Functions 64
Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex 64

1. Frontal Lobes 64
2. Parietal Lobes 67
3. Temporal Lobes 67
4. Occipital Lobes 68
Images of the Brain at Work 69

Functions of the Hemispheres of the Cerebral Cortex 70

Functions of the Left and Right Cerebral Hemispheres 70
Split Brains 70
Hemispheres of the Cerebral Cortex and Emotion 71
Plasticity of the Cortex 73
The Brain Is a Developing System 74

Developmental Changes in White and Gray Matter 74
Neurogenesis 75
The Brain Is an Interacting System 75

Endocrine System: Chemical Messengers of the Body 77

Pituitary Gland 77

Adrenal Glands 77

Islets of Langerhans 79

Gonads 79

Thyroid Gland 80

Parathyroid Glands 80

Pineal Gland 80

APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 82

SUMMARY 86

VISUAL REVIEW OF BRAIN STRUCTURES 87

chapter four
Interplay of Nature
and Nurture
90

Prologue 90

Nature: Genetic Infl uences on Behavior 91

Do Genes Infl uence Our Behavior and Mental
Processes? 91

Genetic Studies of Nonhuman Animal Behavior 91

Genetic Studies of Human Behavior 92

Studies of Twins 93
Studies of Adopted Children 94
Molecular Genetic Mechanisms of Inheritance 94

Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA 94
Polymorphic Genes 94
Dominant and Recessive Genes 96
Polygenic Traits 96
X and Y Chromosomes and Sex 96
Chromosome Abnormalities 97
Genes and Behavior 97

Nurture: Environmental Infl uences 98

Physical Environments 99

Social Environments 99

Culture, Ethnicity, and Identity 99
Culture and Parenting 100

Interplay of Nature and Nurture 101

Gene-Environment Correlation 101

Gene-Environment Interaction 102

Sex, Gender, and Human Diversity 104

Gender Identity and Gender Roles 104

Gender Similarities and Gender Differences 105

Gender Differences in Physical Characteristics 105
Gender Differences in Cognitive Ability
and Achievement 106
Gender Differences in Emotion and Social Behavior 106
Gender Differences in Mating and Sexual Behavior 107
Origins of Gender Differences 108

Sex Differences in the Brain 108

Genetics and Psychological Theory 111

Darwin, James, and Functionalism 111

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ix

Evolutionary Psychology 111

Evolutionary Psychology and Gender Differences 112
Critique of Evolutionary Theory 113
Social-Role Theory of Gender Differences 114

Critique of Social-Role Theory 115

APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 117

SUMMARY 117

part two
Awareness

chapter fi ve
Sensation and Perception
120

Prologue 120

Sensation: Receiving Sensory Messages 121

Stimuli: What Messages Can Be Received? 121

Transduction: Translating Messages for the Brain 122

Sensory Limits: How Strong Must Messages Be? 122

Sensory Adaptation 122
Psychophysics 123
Vision: Sensing Light 125

Light: What Is It? 125

The Eye: How Does It Work? 126

Dark and Light Adaptation 127

Color Vision 128

Color Blindness 130
Hearing: Sensing Sound Waves 132

Sound: What Is It? 132

The Ear: How Does It Work? 133

Outer Ear 133
Middle Ear 133
Inner Ear 134
Body Senses 137

Orientation and Movement 137

Vestibular Organ 137
Kinesthetic Sense 138
Skin Senses 138

Pressure and Sensitivity 139
Temperature 139
Pain 139

Pain Gates 140
Phantom Limbs 142

Chemical Senses: The Flavors and Aromas of Life 144

Taste 144

Smell 145

Pheromone Detection 145

Perception: Interpreting Sensory Messages 147

Visual Perception 147

Perceptual Organization 148
Perceptual Constancy 148
Depth Perception 150
Visual Illusions 153
Color Perception 156
Multisensory Integration 156

Motivation, Emotion, and Perception 156

SUMMARY 158

VISUAL REVIEW OF THE SENSE ORGANS 160

chapter six
States of Consciousness
162

Prologue 162

Wide Awake: Normal Waking Consciousness 163

Divided Consciousness: Being Two Places (Mentally)
at the Same Time 164

The Concept of the Unconscious Mind 164

Sleep and Dreams: Conscious while Asleep 166

Stages of Sleep 166

Hypnagogic State 166
Stages of Light and Deep Sleep 167
REM Sleep and Dreams 168

Autonomic Storms 169
Time Spent Dreaming 169
Non-REM Sleep and Dreams 169

Circadian Rhythms 170

Sleep Deprivation, the Need for Sleep, and
Health 171

Dreams 173

The Nature of Dreams 173
Sweet Dreams: The Emotional Content of Dreams 173
Creative and Bizarre Aspects of Dreams 174
Meaning of Dreams 174

Day Residue 174
Dream Interpretation 174
Nightmares and Other Sleep Phenomena 175

Sleep Disorders 175

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x
contents

Altered States of Consciousness 177

Meditation 178

Mindfulness 178

Hypnosis 179

Mesmer and Mesmerism 179
Depersonalization 180

Drugs and Altered Consciousness 181

Drug Use: Basic Considerations 183

Psychotropic Drugs 183

Stimulants 183
Depressants 184
Sedatives and Tranquilizers 184
Narcotics 184
Inhalants 185
Hallucinogens 185
Marijuana 185
Designer Drugs 186
Drug Abuse and Dependence 186

Drug Abuse 186
Drug Dependence 186

APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 189

SUMMARY 191

part three
Learning and Cognition

chapter seven
Basic Principles of Learning
193

Prologue 193

Defi nition of Learning 194

Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association 195

Association: The Key Element in Classical
Conditioning 196

Terminology of Classical Conditioning 197

Defi nition of Classical Conditioning 198

Importance of Classical Conditioning 201

Operant Conditioning: Learning from the Consequences
of Your Behavior 203

Positive Reinforcement 204

Primary and Secondary Reinforcement 205
Schedules of Positive Reinforcement 205
Shaping 206

Negative Reinforcement 207

Punishment 209

Dangers of Punishment 209
Guidelines for the Use of Punishment 210
Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning 211

Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization 212

Extinction: Learning When to Quit 214

Removing the Source of Learning 215

Spontaneous Recovery and Disinhibition 215

Theoretical Interpretations of Learning 217

Cognition or Connection? 218

Place Learning 218
Latent Learning 218
Insight Learning and Learning Sets 219
Modeling: Learning by Watching Others 221

Biological Factors in Learning 223

APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 226

SUMMARY 226

chapter eight
Memory
228

Prologue 228

Three Stages of Memory: An Information-Processing
View 230

Sensory Register 230

Short-Term Memory 231

Rehearsal in Short-Term Memory: Overcoming STM’s
Limited Life Span 231
Chunking in Short-Term Memory: Overcoming STM’s Limited
Capacity 232
Long-Term Memory 234

Types of Long-Term Memory: Procedural, Episodic, and
Semantic 234
Organization in Long-Term Memory 236
Retrieval of Long-Term Memories 237
Serial Learning 239
Levels of Processing: An Alternative to the Stage
Model 240

Deep Processing and Survival Value 240
Elaboration and Deep Processing 241
Forgetting and Why It Occurs 243

Decay Theory 243

Interference Theory 244

Reconstruction (Schema) Theory 245

Motivated Forgetting 248

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Biological Basis of Memory 251

Synaptic Theories of Memory: Search for the Engram 251

Consolidation 252
DNA and Memory 252
Stages of Memory and the Brain 252

Amnesia: Disorders of Memory 254

Retrograde Amnesia 254
Anterograde Amnesia 254

APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 257

SUMMARY 261

chapter nine
Cognition, Language,
and Intelligence
263

Prologue 263

Defi nition of Cognition 265

Concepts: The Basic Units of Thinking 265

Simple and Complex Concepts 266

Natural Concepts 266

Natural Concepts Are Basic 266
Natural Concepts Are Good Prototypes 268

Thinking and Problem Solving: Using Information
to Reach Goals 269

Formulating the Problem 270

Understanding and Organizing the Elements of the
Problem 271

Generating and Evaluating Alternative Solutions 271

Emotional Factors in Decision Making 272

Creative Problem Solving: Convergent and Divergent
Thinking 273

Language: Symbolic Communication 277

Semantics: The Meaning of What Is Said 277

Generative Property of Language: Elements and Rules 277

Phonemes 278
Morphemes 278
Syntax 278
Language and Thought: The Whorfi an Hypothesis 279

Animal Languages: Can We Talk to the Animals? 280

Intelligence: The Sum Total of Cognition 282

Differing Views of Intelligence 283

Intelligence: General or Specifi c Abilities? 283
The Biological Basis of General Intelligence 284
Cognitive Components of Intelligent Behavior 284

Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence 285
Measuring Intelligence: The IQ Test 286

Construction of Intelligence Tests 286
Characteristics of Good Intelligence Tests 288
Tacit Intelligence 289

Individual Differences in Intelligence: Contributing
Factors 290

The Importance of Intelligence in Modern Society 291

Are People Becoming More Intelligent? 292

Race-Ethnic Differences in Intelligence and Achievement:
The Narrowing Gap 294

The Bell Curve: Policy Implications of Differences in
Intelligence 295

Extremes in Intelligence: Mental Retardation and
Giftedness 296

APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 299

SUMMARY 301

part four
Developmental
Psychology

chapter ten
Developmental Psychology
303

Prologue 303

Basic Processes of Development 304

Nature and Nurture 305

Maturation 305

Early Experience and Critical Periods 306

Imprinting 306
Early Social Deprivation 307
Stage Theories of Development 310

Piaget’s Stage Theory of Cognitive Development 311

Stage Theories of Moral Development 311

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 311
Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development 313
Erikson’s Stage Theory of Personality
Development 314

Normal Development across the Life Span 315

Prenatal Development 317

Development in Infancy and Childhood 318

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xii
contents

Neonatal Period: The Newborn 318

Infancy: 2 Weeks to 2 Years 318
Physical Development 318
Cognitive Development (Sensorimotor Stage) 319
Emotional and Social Development 320
Early Childhood: 2 to 7 Years 322
Cognitive Development (Preoperational Stage) 322
Emotional and Social Development 322
Middle Childhood: 7 to 11 Years 323
Cognitive Development (Concrete Operational Stage) 323
Emotional and Social Development 324
Adolesecent Development 325

Physical Development 325

Cognitive Development
(Formal Operational Stage) 326

Emotional and Social Development 328
Adolescent Social Development 328
Adolescent Emotions 328
Adulthood: Young Adulthood through Older Adulthood 330

Physical Development 330

Cognitive Development 330

Emotional and Social Development 331

Stages of Adult Life 332
Early Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation (17 to 45 Years) 332
Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation
(40 to 65 Years) 332
Climacteric 334
Later Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair (65 Years On) 334
Evaluation of Stage Theories of Adulthood 335
Causes of Aging and Predictors of Longevity 336
Death and Dying: The Final “Stage” 337

Variations in Development that Make US Unique 339

Getting There at Different Times 340

APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 341

VISUAL REVIEW OF STAGE THEORIES OF

DEVELOPMENT 347

part fi ve
The Self

chapter eleven
Motivation and Emotion
349

Prologue 349

Defi nitions of Motivation and Emotion 351

Primary Motives: Biological Needs 351

Homeostasis: Biological Thermostats 352

Hunger: The Regulation of Food Intake 352

Body Weight and the “Set Point” 354
Psychological Factors in Hunger 354
Thirst: The Regulation of Water Intake 355

Biological Regulation of Thirst 355
Psychological Factors in Thirst 356

Psychological Motives 357

Stimulus Motivation: Seeking Novel
Stimulation 357

Optimal Arousal Theory 357
Arousal and Performance: The Yerkes-Dodson
Law 358
Affi liation Motivation 358

Achievement Motivation 360

Solomon’s Opponent-Process Theory of Acquired
Motives 361

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 362

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives 364

Sexual Motivation and Sexuality 366

Sexual Response Cycle 366

Similarity of Sexual Motivation to Other Primary
Motives 368

Differences Between Sexual Motivation and Other
Primary Motives 369

Hormones and Other Biological Factors in Sexual
Behavior 369

Patterns of Sexual Behavior 370

Sexual Orientation 372

Stigmatization, Stress, and Sexual Orientation 373
Origins of Sexual Orientation 374

Emotions 375

Three Theories of Emotion 377

James-Lange Theory 377
Cannon-Bard Theory 378
Cognitive Theory 379
Role of Learning and Culture in Emotions 381

The Pursuit of Happiness 382

Does Money Buy Happiness? 383

Aggression: Emotional and Motivational
Aspects 385

Freud’s Instinct Theory: The Release of Aggressive
Energy 386

Frustration-Aggression Theory 386

Social Learning Theory 387

Cognitive Theory of Aggression 387

Violent Youth Gangs 388

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xiii

APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 390

SUMMARY 391

VISUAL REVIEW OF THEORIES OF MOTIVATION AND

EMOTION 392

chapter twelve
Personality
394

Prologue 394

Defi nition of Personality 395

Trait Theory: Describing the Consistencies of Personality 396

Allport’s Trait Theory 396

Five-Factor Model of Personality 397

Importance of Personality Traits 398

Psychoanalytic Theory: Sigmund Freud 401

Freud’s Mind: Three Levels of Consciousness 402

Freud’s Mind: Id, Ego, and Superego 402

Id: The Selfi sh Beast 403
Ego: The Executive of Personality 403
Superego: The Conscience and Ego Ideal 403
Displacement and Identifi cation: Becoming a Member of
Society 404

Growing Up: The Stages of Psychosexual Development 404

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 Year) 405
Anal Stage (1 to 3 Years) 405
Phallic Stage (3 to 6 Years) 405
Latency Stage (6 to 11 Years) 406
Genital Stage (11 Years On) 406
Theories Derived from Psychoanalysis 407

Carl Jung 407
Alfred Adler 408
Karen Horney 408
Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura 410

Role of Learning in Personality 410

Role of Cognition in Personality 411

Situationism and Interactionism 412

Humanistic Theory: Maslow and Rogers 414

Inner-Directedness and Subjectivity 414

The Self-Concept 414

Self-Actualization 415

Humanism Compared with Classic Psychoanalysis and
Social Learning Theory 416

Personality Assessment: Taking a Measure of the Person 418

Interviews and Observational Methods 419

Projective Personality Tests 419

Objective Personality Tests 420

Evaluation of Personality Tests 420

SUMMARY 422

VISUAL REVIEW OF PERSONALITY THEORY 423

part six
Health and Adjustment

chapter thirteen
Stress and Health
424

Prologue 424

Stress: Challenges to Coping 425

Sources of Stress 425

Life Events 426
Frustration 428
Confl ict 428
Pressure 430
Environmental Conditions 431
General Aspects of Stress Reactions 431

Psychological Reactions to Stress 431
Physical Reactions to Stress and Health 432

The General Adaptation Syndrome 432
Depression, Anxiety, and Health 435
Factors that Infl uence Reactions to Stress 436

Prior Experience with the Stress 436

Developmental Factors 437

Predictability and Control 437

Social Support 438

Person Variables in Reactions to Stress: Cognition and
Personality 438

Cognitive Factors in Stress Reactions 439
Personality Characteristics and Stress Reactions 439
Person Variables in Reactions to Stress: Gender and
Ethnicity 440

Gender Differences in Response to Stress 440
Gender Differences in the Benefi ts of Marriage 441
Fight-or-Flight and Tend-and-Befriend 441
Ethnic Differences in Stress 442
Coping with Stress 443

Effective Coping 443

Ineffective Coping 444

Changing Health-Related Behavior Patterns 447

Learning to Relax 447

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xiv
contents

Eating Right, Exercising, and Doing Just What the
Doctor Ordered 448

Improved Eating Habits 448
Regular Aerobic Exercise 449
Not Smoking 450
Medical Compliance 450
Become an Advocate for Sustainable Energy 450
Safety Management 452

APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 455

SUMMARY 456

chapter fourteen
Abnormal Behavior
458

Prologue 458

Defi nition of Abnormal Behavior 459

Historical Views of Abnormal Behavior 460

Supernatural Theories 460
Biological Theories 461
Psychological Theories 462
Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior 462

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders 462

Public Health Burden of Abnormal Behavior 463

The Problem of Stigma 463

The Concept of Insanity 464

Anxiety Disorders 466

Phobias 466

Generalized and Panic Anxiety Disorders 466

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 468

Stressors That Cause PTSD 468
Terrorism and PTSD 469
Who Develops PTSD? 469
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders 470

Somatoform Disorders 470

Somatization Disorders and Hypochondriasis 471

Conversion Disorders and Somatoform Pain
Disorders 471

Dissociative Disorders 472

Depersonalization 472

Dissociative Amnesia and Fugue 472

Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality) 473

Mood Disorders 475

Major Depression 475

Causes of Major Depression 476

Cognitive Factors in Depression 476
Bipolar Disorder 479

Schizophrenia 480

Causes of Schizophrenia 481
Subtypes of Schizophrenia 481
Paranoid Schizophrenia 481
Disorganized Schizophrenia 482
Catatonic Schizophrenia 482
Attention-Defi cit/Hyperactivity Disorder 482

Personality Disorders 483

Schizoid Personality Disorder 484

Antisocial Personality Disorder 484

Other Personality Disorders 485

Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders 487

Transvestism and Gender Identity Disorder 487

Fetishism 488

Sexual Sadism and Masochism 488

Voyeurism and Exhibitionism 489

Forced Sexual Behavior 489

Rape 489
Sexual Abuse of Children 489
Sexual Harassment 490
Sexual Dysfunction and Sexual Health 492

Dysfunctions of Sexual Desire 492

Dysfunctions of Sexual Arousal 493

Orgasm Dysfunctions 494

SUMMARY 495

chapter fi fteen
Therapies
497

Prologue 497

Defi nition of Psychotherapy 498

Ethical Standards for Psychotherapy 499

Psychoanalysis 500

Techniques of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy 500

Free Association 500
Dream Interpretation 501
Interpretation of Resistance 501
Interpretation of Transference 501
Catharsis 502
Excerpt from Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy 502

Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depression 502

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