Protected Areas and International Environmental Law

337 Pages·2007·1.31 MB·English

by  Alexander Gillespie

PROTECTED AREAS
AND
INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW

Protected Areas and International
Environmental Law
by
ALEXANDER GILLESPIE
MARTINUS NIJHOFF PUBLISHERS
LEIDEN/BOSTON
A C.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
Cover photo: © UNESCO / Forbes, Inez
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acronyms ix
Treaties referred to in this book xi
Acknowledgements xv
Introduction 1
I The History and Scope of Protected Areas 7
1 From Antiquity to the Twentieth Century 7
2 A Matrix of Protected Areas 9
3 International Conventions 9
A The World Heritage Convention (WHC) 9
B The Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) 12
C The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially
as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar) 14
D Antarctica 15
E The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 16
F The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) 17
G Species Specific Conventions 19
4 Regional Conventions 21
A The Regional Seas Agreements 21
B The African Context 23
C The European Context 24
5 Conclusion 26
II Definitions 27
1 The Debate on Classification 27
2 International Practice and the IUCN Categories 33
A Category I: Strict Nature Reserves and Wilderness Areas 33
B Category II: National Parks 36
C Category III: Natural Monuments 37
D Category IV: Habitat/Species Management Areas 38
E Category V: Multiple Use Areas 39
F Category VI: Managed Resource Area 45
3 Conclusion 45
VI TableofContents
III Values 47
1 The International Facilitation of the Values of Protected Areas 47
2 Cumulative Values 47
3 The Wide and Evolving Spectrum 48
4 Confidence Building 50
5 Science 51
6 Economic 54
A Tourism 57
7 Values by Species, Ecosystem and Geomorphic or Physio-graphical
Type 60
A Endangered Species 61
B Ecosystems 70
C Geomorphic or Physio-graphical Areas 82
8 Intangible Human Values 86
A Aesthetics 87
B Cultural Values 90
C Cultural Landscapes 93
9 Conclusion 95
IV Obligations and Gaps 97
1 The Impetus to Protect 97
2 The Obligation to Create Protected Areas 98
3 Marine Protected Areas 107
4 Transboundary Protected Areas 109
5 The Number of Protected Areas 111
6 Some International Protected Areas of Note 112
7 The Gaps in the System 112
8 Thematic Gaps 114
A Marine 114
B Forests 116
C Mountains 119
D Drylands, Arid, Semi-arid, Grassland and Savannah Ecosystems/
Dry and Semi-Humid Lands 119
9 Priority Areas 121
10 The Choice of Priority Areas 122
A The Udvardy System 123
B The Global 200 124
C Species Focused Approaches 125
D Hotspots 127
11 Conclusion 128
V Management 131
1 Management Plans 131
2 Legal Status 137
3 Boundaries 139
TableofContents VII
4 Size 141
5 Buffer Zones 147
6 Networks and Corridors 150
7 Staff and Other Resources 152
8 Environmental Impact Assessments 157
9 Conclusion 165
VI Local Populations 167
1 The Paradigm Shift in Protected Area Management 167
2 Promotion of the Local/Traditional/Indigenous Populations 171
3 On-the-Ground Non-Governmental Organisations 179
4 Conclusion 181
VII Threats 183
1 The Integrity of a Protected Area 183
2 Permanent Human Populations 185
3 Temporary (tourist) Human Populations 186
4 Alien Species 191
5 Air Pollution and Climate Change 198
6 Water Supply and Large Dams 201
7 Mineral and/or Hydrocarbon Exploration and/or Extraction 207
8 Traffic and Routing 212
9 General Industrial Development 216
10 Pollution 218
11 Legal Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing 220
12 Illegal Logging, Mining and Poaching 222
13 War 226
14 Conclusion 228
VIII Compliance 231
1 Discovering Sites Threatened with Danger 232
A Monitoring 232
B Reporting 237
C Independent Visits 240
2 Recognition of the Danger 242
3 Mitigating Threatened Sites 245
A Automatic Review 246
B Selective Review and the Question of State Consent 247
4 Removal of Threatened Status 257
5 Conclusion 263
VIII TableofContents
IX Financial Assistance, Communication, Constituents and Final
Issues 265
1 Financial Assistance 265
A Financial Assistance from Internal Sources 266
B General Mechanisms 269
C Financial Assistance from External Sources 270
2 Education and Communication 273
3 Constituents and Final Issues 277
A Secretariats 277
B Standing Bodies 278
C Non-Governmental Organisations 280
D NGO’s as Partners 284
E NGO’s within Official Forums 288
F Science and Technical Bodies 290
G Submission Procedures 293
H The Relationship between Organisations 297
I Financing the Regimes 301
J Entry into Force 302
X Conclusion 303
Index 311
ACRONYMS
ACAP Agreement on the Conservation of Albatross and Petrels
ACCOBAMS Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea,
Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area
AEWA African-Eurasian Migratory Birds Agreement
ASCOBANS Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic
and the North Seas
ASPA Antarctic Specially Protected Area
ARPA Amazon Region Protected Areas Programme
APM Associated Protective Measures
BRIM Biosphere Reserve Integrated Monitoring
BSPA Baltic Sea Protected Area
CAFF Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna
CBD United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity
CCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries
Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in
Africa
CEMP CCAMLR Ecosystem Monitoring Programme
CEP Committee on Environmental Protection
CEPA Communication, Education and Public Awareness
CMS Convention on Migratory Species
CPAN Circumpolar Protected Area Network
CPD Centre of Plant Diversity
EBA Endemic Bird Area
FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations
GCRM Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network
HSMPA High Seas Marine Protected Area
IBP International Biological Programme
ICC International Co-ordinating Council
ICDP Intergrated Conservation and Development Project
ICRI International Coral Reef Initiative
ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ITTA International Tropical Timber Agreement
ITTO International Tropical Timber Organisation
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature
LME Large Marine Ecosystems
MAB Man and the Biosphere
MEA Multilateral Environmental Agreements