Properties of Silicon Germanium and SiGe: Carbon PDF
Preview Properties of Silicon Germanium and SiGe: Carbon
P R O P E R T I ES OF S i l i c on G e r m a n i um a nd S i C e : C a r b on E d i t ed by E R I CH K A S P ER A ND K L A RA L Y U T O V I CH U n i v e r s i ty of S t u t t g a r t, G e r m a ny IEE I N S P EC Published by: INSPEC, The Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, United Kingdom © 2000: The Institution of Electrical Engineers This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any forms or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address: The Institution of Electrical Engineers, Michael Faraday House, Six Hills Way, Stevenage, Herts. SG1 2AY, United Kingdom While the author and the publishers believe that the information and guidance given in this work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgment when making use of them. Neither the author nor the publishers assume any liability to anyone for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such error or omission is the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all such liability is disclaimed. The moral right of the author to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him/her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0 85296 783 7 Printed in England by Short Run Press Ltd., Exeter Dedication This volume of the EMIS Datareviews series is dedicated to the memory of Hamish G. Maguire who died in a tragic accident during the planning phase of this book. Introduction For decades, advanced microelectronics has delivered, year by year, products with more functions and higher performance at the same costs. This has been achieved by continuous lateral shrinkage of monolithic integrated device dimensions and by relying on simple material concepts with silicon as semiconductor, silicon oxides as dielectrics and aluminium as interconnect metal. With the 100 nm length approaching, traditional trade-offs fail and we see a paradigm shift requiring sophisticated materials science from semiconductors to dielectrics and metals. A few years after the invention of the bipolar transistor, the basic electronic semiconductor material changed from germanium to silicon. During that switch around 1960, considerable interest was focused on bulk, unstrained SiGe alloys. Advanced epitaxy methods like molecular beam epitaxy or chemical vapour deposition have enabled the growth of high quality, thin, strained SiGe layers on Si substrates since around 1985. The availability of strained SiGe/Si structures strongly stimulated the research on silicon-based heterostructure devices resulting within a few years in the fastest silicon- based transistors and other very attractive options. However, it was only in 1998 when the volume production of the SiGe heterobipolar transistor (HBT) circuits for mobile communication started, that a broad public audience became aware of this new strained layer heterostructure material which is in the main not available in bulk form. The technology involved in applying this material system will spread to other traditional and novel device areas: carbon bandgap engineering, strain adjustment techniques, quantum confinement and self-assembling. This book is based partly on a revised version of the EMIS Datareviews Series No. 12, Properties of Strained and Relaxed Silicon Germanium (INSPEC, IEE, London, 1995); but the dramatic increase of industrial relevance and the need to cover completely new subjects, such as carbon containing alloys, quantum size effects and self-assembling, forced a rigorous revision. The book is organised to meet three different demands of a reader. In Chapter 1 some general properties of strained layer systems which need caution are summarised. The SiGe:C heterostructure can be considered as a model for the investigation of stress driven phenomena because of the chemical similarity of the materials involved, which minimises additional chemical effects. The specific material data for strained and relaxed alloys of SiGe and SiGe:C are given in Chapters 2 to 6. Basically, the different properties are given as functions of the parameters Ge content, x, and film strain, s. To a first approximation, some properties, e.g. the elastic stiffness constants, can be considered as linear functions of the chemical composition (Vegard's law). Some properties, e.g. the lattice constants, vary monotonically, but not linearly with composition. Some other properties, e.g. the thermal conductivity, depend even non-monotonically on the chemical composition. Strain dependence can often be approximated by a linear law at least for a given sign of the strain (compressive or tensile). For a few known cases, but not in general, the temperature dependence of the properties is explicitly given. In most cases the doping dependence of the alloy properties has not yet been explored. For the parent materials, see either Landolt-Bornstein, New Series, Group III, Volume 17a (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1982) or Properties of Crystalline Silicon, No. 20 in the EMIS Datareviews Series (INSPEC, IEE, London, 1999). In Chapter 7 some device relevant structures are selected out from a much larger variety. Band offsets, doping effects, adjustment of strain in multiple layer structures, formation of quantum wells and superlattices should be demonstrated for a certain set of parameters. The heterobipolar transistor has already proved its importance for analog, mixed analog/digital and high frequency circuits. This success has paved the way to the consideration of other high impact device applications of this silicon-based material system. Superior field effect transistors with symmetrical, high mobility n- and p-channels are a unique opportunity given by this material system. Higher refractive index, smaller bandgap and increased absorption are the ingredients needed for silicon-based optoelectronics with optical waveguides, near-infrared receivers and integrated fast electronics. Finally, we would like to express our thanks to the authors and to the following persons for their critical comments and advice: M. Goryll, Forschungszentrum Jiilich K. Grimm, Forschungszentrum Jiilich A. Gruhle, DaimlerChrysler R&D, UIm W. Hansch, Universitat der Bundeswehr, Miinchen K. Hofmann, Universitat Hannover W. Jager, Universitat zu Kiel S. Jain, IMEC Leuven A.N. Larsen, University of Aarhus C. Miiller-Schwanneke, Max-Planck-Institut fur Festkorperforschung W. Ni, Linkoping University H.- J. Osten, Tnstitut fiir Halbleiterphysik, Frankfurt (Oder) R. Sauer, Universitat UIm L. Vescan, Forschungszentrum Jiilich Also, we acknowledge continuous support from J.L. Sears, Managing Editor of the EMIS Datareviews series. Suggestions and remarks from readers are very welcome. Erich Kasper Klara Lyutovich Institut fiir Halbleitertechnik, Universitat Stuttgart, Germany April 2000 Contributing Authors G.Abstreiter 4.4 TU Muenchen Walter-Schottky-Institut Am Coulombwall, D-85748 Garching, Germany A. Balandin 3.2 UCLA Electrical Eng. Dept. 66 147 Engr. IV 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1594, USA G.Bauer 4.1,5.4 Institut fuer Halbleiterphysik Johannes Kepler Universitaet Altenbergerstrasse 69, A-4040 Linz, Austria M.Berroth 7.4 Universitaet Stuttgart Institut fuer Elektrische and Optische Nachrichtentechnik Pfaffenwaldring 47, 70550 Stuttgart, Germany K. Brunner 3.3 TU Muenchen Walter-Schottky-Institut Am Coulombwall, D-85748 Garching, Germany R. Duschl 2.5,4.6 Max-Planck-Institut fuer Festkoerperforschung Heisenbergstrasse 1, Stuttgart, D-70569 Germany K. Eberl 2.5,4.6 Max-Planck-Institut fuer Festkoerperforschung Heisenbergstrasse 1, Stuttgart, D-70569 Germany T. Fromherz 4.1 Institut fuer Halbleiterphysik Johannes-Kepler-Universitaet Altenbergerstrasse 69, A-4040 Linz, Austria H.-J. Herzog 2.1 DaimlerChrysler AG Research and Technology PO Box 2360, D-89013 UIm, Germany R. Hull 1.2,1.3 University of Virginia Department of Materials Science and Engineering Thornton Hall, Charlottesville, VA 22903-2442, USA W. Jaeger 2.2,2.4 Technische Fakultaet der Christian-Albrechts-Univ. zu Kiel Kaiserstrasse 2, D-24143 Kiel, Germany DE. Jesson 1.1 Oak Ridge National Laboratory Solid State Division PO Box 2008, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831-6030, USA HLJorke 5.3,6.3 DaimlerChrysler AG Research and Technology P.O. Box 2360, D-89013 UIm, Germany M.Jutzi 7.4 Universitaet Stuttgart Institut fuer Elektrische and Optische Nachrichtentechnik Pfaffenwaldring 47, 70550 Stuttgart, Germany P. C. Kelires 6.1 University of Crete and FORTH Department of Physics 710 03 Heraclion, Crete, Greece A. Khitun 3.2 UCLA Electrical Eng. Dept. 66 147 Engr. IV 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1594, USA U. Konig 7.2 DaimlerChrysler AG, Research and Technology PO Box 2360 UIm, Germany M. Lagally 6.2 University of Wisconsin-Madison Department of Materials Science and Engineering 1509 University Avenue, Madison, WI 537006, USA J.L. Liu 3.2 UCLA Electrical Eng. Dept. 66 147 Engr. IV 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1594, USA E. Mateeva 6.2 Colorado School of Mines Golden, CO 80401, USA R. Neumann 4.4 TU Muenchen Walter-Schottky-Institut Am Coulombwall, D-85748 Garching, Germany J. Olajos 5.7 Lund University Department of Solid State Physics PO Box 118, S-221 00 Lund, Sweden T.P.Pearsall 7.3 Corning SA Center Europeen de Recherche de Fontainebleau 7bis, Avenue de Valvins, 77210 Avon, France Ch.Penn 4.1 Johannes-Kepler-Universitaet Institut fuer Halbleiterphysik Altenbergerstrasse 69, A-4040 Linz, Austria F. Schaeffler 5.2 Johannes-Kepler-Universitaet Institut fuer Halbleiterphysik Altenbergerstrasse 69, A-4040 Linz, Austria O.G. Schmidt 2.5, 4.6 Max-Planck-Institut fuer Festkoerperforschung Heisenbergstrasse 1, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany T.P. Sidiki 5.1 Bergische Universitaet GH Wuppertal Gauss-Strasse 20, D42097 Wuppertal, Germany CM. Sotomayor Torres 5.1 Bergische Universitaet GH Wuppertal Gauss-Strasse 20, D42097 Wuppertal, Germany J.C.Sturm 7.1 Princeton University Center for Photonics and Optoelectronic Materials Princeton, NJ 08544-5263, USA P. Sutter 6.2 Colorado School of Mines Golden, CO 80401, USA G.Theodorou 2.3 Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Department of Physics, Solid State Section 54006 Thessaloniki, Greece K. Tillmann 2.4 Technische Fakultaet der Christian-Albrechts-Universitaet zu Kiel, Kaiserstrasse 2, D-24143 Kiel, Germany H. Trinkaus 2.4 Technische Fakultaet der Christian-Albrechts-Universitaet zu Kiel, Kaiserstrasse 2, D-24143 Kiel, Germany C. G. Van de Walle 4.2,4.3, 4.5 Xerox PARC 333 Coyote Hill Road, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA K. L. Wang 3.2 UCLA Electrical Eng. Dept. 66 147 Engr. IV 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1594, USA H. Yin 7.1 Princeton University Center for Photonics and Optoelectronic Materials Princeton, NJ 08544-5263, USA In the present volume Datareviews by the following authors are reproduced from Properties of Strained and Relaxed Silicon Germanium (INSPEC, IEE, 1995): E.Arzt 3.1 S.P. Baker 3.1 J. Humlicek 5.5, 5.6 Abbreviations AC alternating current AES Auger electron spectroscopy AFM atomic force microscopy APD avalanche photodetector ATG Asaro-Tiller-Grinfeld BC base-collector BE base-emitter BJT bipolar junction transistor BTE Boltzmann transport equation CB conduction band CML current mode logic CMOS complementary metal oxide semiconductor CMP chemical mechanical polishing CPA coherent potential approximation CR cyclotron resonance CV capacitance voltage CVD chemical vapour deposition ID one-dimensional 2D two-dimensional 3D three-dimensional 2DCG two-dimensional carrier gas 2DEG two-dimensional electron gas 2DHG two-dimensional hole gas DBRT double barrier resonant tunnelling DC direct current DF transmission electron microscopy dark field imaging DLTS deep level transient spectroscopy ECL emitter-coupled logic EELS electron energy loss spectroscopy EHD electron-hole droplet EXAFS extended X-ray absorption fine-structure fee face-centred-cubic FET field effect transistor FQHE fractional quantum Hall effect GSMBE gas source molecular beam epitaxy HBT heterojunction bipolar transistor HEMT high electron mobility transistor HFET hetero field effect transistor HH heavy hole HRTEM high-resolution transmission electron microscopy IC integrated circuit IR infrared ITO indium tin oxide LA longitudinal acoustic LACBED large angle convergent beam LEED low energy electron diffraction LEEM low energy electron microscopy LH light hole LO longitudinal optical LPCVD low-pressure chemical vapour deposition LPE liquid phase epitaxy LRO long-range ordering MAG maximum available gain MB Matthews and Blakeslee MBE molecular beam epitaxy MC Monte Carlo MCPA molecular coherent potential approximation MESFET metal-semiconductor field effect transistor MFP mean free path ML monolayer MODFET modulation-doped field effect transistor MODQW modulation-doped quantum well MOS metal oxide semiconductor MOSFET metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor MQW multiple quantum well MUG unilateral gain NP no-phonon NTL non-threshold logic OEIC optoelectronic integrated circuit PL photoluminescence PR photoreflectance QD quantum dot QHE quantum Hall effect QHI quantised Hall insulator QW quantum well QWR quantum wire
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