Progress in Medical Radiation Physics

395 Pages·1982·9.581 MB·English

by  J. J. Broerse, B. J. Mijnheer (auth.), Colin G. Orton (eds.)

Progress In
Medical Radiation
Physics
Progress In
Medical Radiation
Physics
Volume 1
Progress In Medical Radiation Physics
Series Editor:
COLIN G. ORTON, Ph.D.
Department of Radiation Oncology
Wayne State University School of Medicine
Detroit, Michigan
Editorial Board:
PETER R. ALMOND, Ph.D.
Department of Physics
M.D. Anderson Hospital
Houston, Texas
JOHN S. CLIFTON, M.Sc.
Department of Medical Physics
University College Hospital
London, England
ROY E. ELLIS, Ph.D. t
Head Department of Medical Physics
The General Infirmary
Leeds, Yorkshire, England
J.F. FOWLER, Ph.D.
Director, Gray Laboratory
Mount Vernon Hospital
Northwood, Middlesex, England
JAMES G. KEREIAKES, Ph.D.
Eugene L. Saenger Radioisotope Laboratory
Cincinnati General Hospital
Cincinnati, Ohio
JACK S. KROHMER, Ph.D.
Department of Radiology
Wayne State University School of Medicine
Detroit, Michigan
CHRISTOPHER H. MARSHALL, Ph.D.
N. Y. U. Medical Center
New York, New York
tDeceased
Progress In
Medical Radiation
Physics
Volume 1
Edited by
COLIN G. ORTON
Wayne State University School of Medicine
Detroit. Michigan
PLENUM PRESS • NEW YORK AND LONDON
ISBN 978-1-4615-7693-8 ISBN 978-1-4615-7691-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-7691-4
© 1982 Plenum Press, New York
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1982
A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation
233 Spring Street, New York, N.Y. 10013
All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher
Contributors
J. J. Broerse, Radiobiological Institute TNO, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
Christodoulos Constantinou, Radiation Physics Department, St.
Bartholomew's Hospital, London, England. Present address: Univer
sity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin
J. R. Cunningham, The Ontario Cancer Institute, 500 Sherbourne Street,
Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M4X 1K9
S. John Gatley, Medical Physics Section, Department of Radiology, 3321
Sterling Hall, 475 N. Charter Street, University of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wisconsin 53706
Michael Goitein, Division of Radiation Biophysics, Department of Radi
ation Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston,
Massachusetts 02114, and Harvard Medical School.
U. KilIat, Philips GmbH Forschungslaboratorium Hamburg, Vogt-K611n
Str. 30, D 2000 Hamburg 54
B. J. Mijnheer, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands
Robert J. Nickles, Medical Physics Section, Department of Radiology,
3321 Sterling Hall, 475 N. Charter Street, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
David R. White, Radiation Physics Department, St. Bartholomew's Hos
pital, Londbn, England
v
Preface
New developments in the application of radiation to medicine are occurring
so rapidly that this is possibly the fastest growing branch of medicine today.
In the past decade alone, we have seen enormous progress made in tech
niques used both for the diagnosis of disease, such as computerized
tomography, digital radiography, ultrasonography, computerized nuclear
medicine scanning, and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, and for its
treatment, such as the radiotherapeutic utilization of high-LET radiations,
and the widespread application of computers to perform elegant dosimetry
calculations for 3-D treatment planning and imaging.
This series will provide in-depth reviews of the many spectacular
technical advances and sophisticated concepts, which are developing in
medical radiation physics at such an alarming rate that it has become
increasingly difficult to keep one's knowledge up-to-date. These comprehen
sive review articles will help to bridge the communications gap between
the international research community, and the medical physicists and phy
sicians whose responsibility it is to put these advances into clinical use.
These articles should also be of value to the increasing number of physical
scientists and engineers who are interested in the application of their
knowledge and talents to the field of medicine.
Colin G. Orton
vii
Contents
1. Progress in Neutron Dosimetry for Biomedical Applications
J. J. Broerse and B. J. Mijnheer
1. Introduction 1
2. Neutron Sources 6
2.1. Cyclotrons 7
2.2. d + T Neutron Sources 13
2.3. Reactor Neutron Beams of Special Design 15
3. Principles and Methods in Neutron Dosimetry 16
3.1. Ionization Chambers . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2. Physical Parameters for Dosimetry with Ionization Chambers 22
3.3. Calorimeters 27
3.4. Fluence Measurements 29
3.5. Solid-State Dosimeters 30
3.6. Determination of the Gamma-Ray Absorbed Dose in a
Neutron Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.7. Determination of the Neutron Absorbed Dose in a Photon
Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4. Assessment of Radiation Quality ....... 43
4.1. Neutron and Gamma-Ray Energy Spectra 44
4.2. Microdosimetric Parameters and Techniques 47
4.3. Lineal Energy Spectra in the Phantom 51
5. Dosimetry for Radiobiology ....... 54
5.1. Interface Dosimetry ........ 56
5.2. Absorbed Dose Distributions in Animals 61
6. Dosimetry for Radiotherapy ........ 65
6.1. Protocols for Neutron Dosimetry for External Beam Therapy 65
6.2. Absorbed Dose Distributions in the Standard Phantom 68
6.3. Absorbed Dose Distributions in the Patient . 73
7. Dosimetry for in vivo Neutron Activation Analysis 78
8. Results of Dosimetry Intercomparisons ..... 79
ix
x Contents
9. Conclusions and Recommendations 86
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2. Tissue Inhomogeneity Corrections in Photon-Beam
Treatment Planning
J. R. Cunningham
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2. Survey of Common Dose-Correction Methods 105
2.1. Methods Based on Water-Equivalent Depth 108
2.2. Power Law Tissue-Air Ratio Method ... 112
2.3. The Equivalent Tissue-Air Ratio Method . 113
2.4. Volume Integration of Differential Scatter-Air Ratios 121
2.5. Monte Carlo Calculations . . .. 126
3. Interface Effects-Electronic Equilibrium 127
4. Summary and Conclusions 129
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3. Anthropomorphic Phantom Materials
David R. White and Christodoulos Constantinou
1. Introduction 133
1.1. The Need for Tissue Simulation 133
1.2. Terminology 134
1.3. A Brief History 135
2. Radiation Properties of Real Tissues 137
2.1. Tissues Requiring Simulation 137
2.2. Radiation Characteristics 140
3. Simulation Procedures 147
3.1. Criteria for Tissue Equivalence 147
3.2. The Effective Atomic Number (2) Method 148
3.3. The Basic Data Method 150
3.4. The Extended Y Method 153
3.5. Elemental Equivalence 156
4. Recent Tissue Substitutes 158
4.1. Introduction 158
4.2. Base Materials and Additives 158
4.3. Recommended Tissue Substitutes 160
5. Manufacturing Procedures and Quality Control 171
5.1. Manufacturing Bulk Materials 171
5.2. Manufacturing Specialized Phantoms 176
5.3. Quality Control 178
6. Recent Phantom Studies 179
6.1. Radiotherapy 179
Contents xi
6.2. Diagnostic Radiology . . . . . . . 181
6.3. Nuclear Medicine and Health Physics 183
7. Discussion 184
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4. Applications of Computed Tomography in Radiotherapy
Treatment Planning
Michael Goitein
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
2. General Studies of the Impact of CT . . 197
2.1. New England Medical Center Study 198
2.2. Massachusetts General Hospital Study 200
2.3. Royal Marsden Hospital Study 204
2.4. Other General Studies ..... 206
2.5. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3. Site-Specific Studies of the Impact of CT 210
4. Monitoring of Tumors During Treatments and in Posttreatment
Follow-up . . . . . 211
5. Treatment Outcome 213
6. Cost Effectiveness 219
7. Patient Positioning . 221
7.1. Breathing 224
7.2. Contrast Media 225
7.3. Bolus 226
7.4. Unavoidable Discrepancies 226
7.5. From Scan to Treatment . 226
7.6. Use of CT to Select Position for Treatment 227
8. Dosimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
x-
8.1. and Gamma-Ray External Beam Therapy 228
8.2. Brachytherapy ..... 242
8.3. Charged-Particle Therapy 242
9. Tissue Characterization 248
9.1. Tomochemistry . . . . . 249
9.2. Spatial Structure 251
9.3. Radiologic-Pathologic Correlation 251
10. Specifications for CT Scanners to be Used in Treatment Planning. 252
10.1. Introduction ................... 252
10.2. Three-Dimensional Delineation of Tumors and Adjacent
Normal Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
10.3. Patient Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
10.4. Features Necessary for the Calculation of Dose 263
10.5. Summary of Specifications ......... 263
10.6. Relationship between Diagnostician and Therapist 264
10.7. Inexpensive Scanners 266
10.8. Treatment Planning Programs . . . . . . . . . 267