Production and transport of oil and gas

633 Pages·1975·30.504 MB·English

by  A Pál Szilas

Developments in Petroleum Science, 3
PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT OF OIL AND GAS
FURTHER TITLES IN THIS SERIES
1 A.G. COLLINS
Geochemistry of Oilfield Waters
2 W.H. FERTL
Abnormal Formation Pressures
t-
PRODUCTION
AND TRANSPORT OF OIL
AND GAS
A. P. SZILAS
Professor of Petroleum Engineering
Petroleum Engineering Department, Miskolc Technical University of
Heavy Industries (Hungary)

ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY
Amsterdam - Oxford - New York 1975
This work was originally published a8
KOOLAJ- 13s FOLDGAZTERMELGS
Tankonyvkiad6, Budapest
ENQLISH TRAKSLATION BY
B. BALKAY
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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 75-1773
ISBN 0-444-99869-1
@ Akaddmiai Kiadd, Budapest 1975
Joint edition published by
Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands and Akadhiai Xiad6,
The Publishing House of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
Printed in Hungary
Contents
Preface ........................................................ 11
List of symbols ..................................................... 13
Chapter 1 . Selected topics in flow mechanics .............................. 25
1.1. Fundamentals of flow in pipes ............................ 25
1.2. Gas flow in pipes ........................................ 29
1.2.1. Fundamentals ..................................... 29
1.2.2. Pressure drop of gas flow in low-pressure pipes ....... 35
1.2.3. Pressure drop of gas flow in high-pressure pipes ....... 36
1.2.4. Mean pressure in gas pipes .......................... 37
1.3. Flow of non-Newtonian fluids in pipes ..................... 38
1.3.1. Classification of fluids in rheology ................... 38
(a) Purely viscous fluids ................................ 38
(b) Time-dependent fluids ............................... 40
(0) Viscoelastic fluids ................................... 42
1.3.2. Velocity distribution in pipes ........................ 42
1.3.3. The generalized Reynolds number .................... 44
1.3.4. Transition from laminar to turbulent flow ............ 46
1.3.5. Calculation of friction loss ........................... 47
(a) Laminar flow of pseudoplastic fluids ................. 47
(b) Turbulent flow of pseudoplastic fluids ............... 50
(c) Thixotropic pseudoplastic fluids ...................... 50
(d) Plastic fluids ....................................... 51
1.4. Multiphase flow of liquids and gases ....................... 53
1.4.1. Flow in horizontal pipelines ......................... 53
(a) Flow patterns ...................................... 53
(b) The calculation method of Lockhart and Martinelli .... 55
(c) Refinements of the Lockhart-Martinelli method ...... 56
(d) Baxendell’s method ................................. 58
1.4.2. Flow in a pipeline laid over hilly terrains ............ 60
1.4.3. Flow in vertical pipe strings ........................ 62
.
fa) Krylov’s theory The qg-qr relationships in the operation
of the flow string .................................. 65
(b) The Poettmann - Carpenter theory . Pressure traverses for
multiphase flow of gas, oil and water ............... 71
....
(c) Refinements of the Poettmann-Carpenter method 77
(d) Gilbert’s theory . Gradient curves .................... 79
(e) Ros’ theory ..................................... 83
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(f) Orkiszewski’s theory ................................ 95
(g) Other theories; remarks ............................ 107
1.5. Flow of compressible mediums through a choke ............. 107
1.5.1. Flow of gases ..................................... 107
1.5.2. Two-phase flow of gases and liquids ................. 109
Chapter 2 . Producing oil wells (1) ..................................... 113
.
2.1. Well testing; inflow performance curves ...... ........ 113
2.2. Flowing wells producing gasless oil ........ ............ 118
2.3. Flowing wells producing gaseous fluids ..... ........... 126
2.3.1. Interaction of well and formation ....
(a) Krylov’s theory .................................... 126
(b) Gilbert’s theory .................................... 128
(c) Influence of the flow line ........................... 131
2.3.2. Time course of production paramet
(a) Calculating the flowing life of wells
(b) Prediction of production rates; Nin
2.3.3. Designing flowing wells for optimum performance par-
................... 135
(a) Dimensioning the tubing string for minimum GOR,
with time-invariant flow parameters ..................1 36
(b) Dimensioning the tubing string for minimum GOR, with
time-variable flow parameters ....................... 138
(c) Dimensioning the tubing string for maximum liquid
production rate, with time-invariant parameters ....... 140
(d) Dimensioning the tubing string for minimum formation
GOR, with time-invariant parameters ................1 41
2.3.4. Well completions ...................... ......... 141
(a) Wellhead equipment ................................ 141
(b) Well safety equipment ............................. 151
(c) Underground well equipment ........................ 152
(d) Tubing ............................................ 155
2.3.5. Producing a well ................................... 157
(a) Starting up a well .................................. 167
(b) Types and control of flowing wells ................... 159
(c) Well check-ups ................................ . 168
2.4. Gas lifting ............................................... 169
2.4.1. Continuous-flow gas lift ............................ 170
(a) Theory of production; factors influencing operation .... 170
2.4.2. Intermittent gas lift ................................ 192
(a) Theory of production; factors affecting operation ...... 192
(b) Intermittent gas-lift design ......................... 196
2.4.3. Gas-lift valves ...................................... 208
(a) Pressure-controlled valves ........................... 208
(b) Other types of gas-lift valves ........................ 222
2.4.4. Types of gas-lift installation ......................... 222
(a) Conventional installation ............................ 222
(b) Chamber installation .............................. 226
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2.4.5. Injection-gas supply ................................ 228
(a) Surface control of wells ............................ 228
(b) Analysing and trouble-shooting gas lift installations ... 231
(c) Gas supply system ................................. 233
2.4.6. Plunger lift ........................................ 235
(a) Operating principles; design features ................. 235
(b) Designing the plunger-lift operation ..................2 38
Chapter 3 . Producing gas wells .......................................... 242
3.1. Well testing. inflow performance curves ...................2 42
3.1.1. The steady-flow test ............................... 246
3.1.2. The isochronal test ................................. 246
3.1.3. Transformation of the performance equation derived from
the steady-flow test into an isochronal performance
equation ........................................... 248
3.2. Well completion; dimensioning the tubing ................. 251
3.3. Corrosion of gas wells; hydrate formation .................. 255
Chapter 4 . Producing oil wells .(2 ) ..................................... 258
4.1. Production by bottom-hole pumps .............
4.1.1. Sucker-rod pumps with walking-beam-type
(a) Loads on the rod string and their effects
(b) Operating points of sucker rod pumping . .
(c) Pumping units and prime movers .................... 286
(d) Wellhead and subsurface equipment .................. 294
(e) Well testing ....................................... 324
(f) Operating conditions ......... ...
4.1.2. The long-stroke sucker-rod pump ....
(a) Hydraulic drive ....................
(b) Mechanical dr ive ................................... 336
4.1.3. Selective sucker-rod pumping of multiple completions 339
(a) Tandem sucker-rod pumps .......................... 339
(b) Double-horsehead pumping units ...........
(c) Two pumping units ...................
(d) Sucker-rod pumping lim holes ..........
4.1.4. Rodless bottom-hole pumping ....................... 346
(a) Hydraulic bottom-hole pumps ....................... 346
(b) Electric centrifugal submersible pumps
(c) Other types of rodless bottom-hole pum ........ 362
Chapter 5 . Choice of most economical production methods ................. 366
Chapter 6 . Gathering and separation of oil and gas ....................... 371
6.1. Line pipes ............................................... 371
6.1.1. Steel pipes ... ................................. 371
6.1.2. Aluminium pip ................................. 374
6.1.3. Plastic pipes; plastic-lined steel pipes ........... 376
6.1.4. Wall thickness of pipes ................ ..... 381
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6.2. Valves; pressure regulators ............................... 382
6.2.1. Valves ............................................. 382
(a) Gate valves ........................................ 382
(b) Plug and ball valves ............................... 386
(c) Globe valves ...................................... 388
6.2.2. Pressure regulators ................................. 392
6.3. Internal maintenance of pipelines .......................... 398
6.4. Separation of oil and gas ................................ 402
6.4.1. Equilibrium calculations ............................. 402
6.4.2. Factors affecting recovery in the separator ........... 413
(a) Separator pressure .................................. 413
(b) Separator temperature .............................. 415
(c) Composition of the wellstream ...................... 416
(d) Stage separation .................................... 417
6.4.3. Basic separator types .............................. 421
(a) Vertical separators .................................. 421
(b) Horizontal separators ............................... 424
(c) Spherical separators ................................ 425
6.4.4. Separator selection ................................. 425
(a) Choice of separator type ............................ 425
(b) Separator sizing .................................... 426
6.4.5. Special separators .................................. 430
(a) Cyclone separators .................................. 430
(b) Three-phase (oil-water-gas) separators .................4 32
(c) Automatic metering separators ....................... 434
6.4.6. Low-temperature separation ......................... 438
6.5. On-lease oil storage ...................................... 440
6.5.1. Storage losses ...................................... 440
6.5.2. Oil storage tanks ................................... 444
6.5.3. Oil tank gauging ................................... 451
6.6. Oil and gas gatherin g and separation systems .............. 452
6.6.1. Viewpoints for designing gathering systems with well-
testing centres ..................................... 454
6.6.2. Hand-operated well testing centres ...................4 56
6.6.3. The automated system .............................. 459
(a) Automated well centres ............................. 462
(b) Automatic custody transfer .......................... 466
(c) Metering procedures ................................ 470
Chapter 7 . Pipeline transportation of oil .................................. 478
7.1. Isothermal flow of a Newtonian oil ........................ 478
.
7.1.1. Pressure traverse and maximum capacity of pipelines 478
..................
7.1.2. Increasing the capacity of pipelines 482
7.1.3. Capacity of branching pipelines ...................... 485
7.1.4. Optimum trace and size of pipelines .................4 87
7.2. Non-isothermal flow ..................................... 491
7.2.1. Thermal properties of soils .......................... 492
8
7.2.2. Temperature of oil in steady-state flow. in buried pipe-
lines .............................................. 496
7.2.3. The heat-transfer coefficient ......................... 499
7.2.4. Calculating the head loss for the steady-state flow of a
Newtonian oil ..................................... 509
(a) Chernikin’s theory ................................ 509
(b) Ford’s theory (with modification) .................... 512
7.2.5. Temperature of oil in transient flow, in buried pipelines 514
7.2.6. Startup pressures of Newtonian oils and their reduction 522
7.2.7. Startup pressure and flow of pseudoplastic oils ....... 525
7.2.8. Pipelines transporting hot oil ........................ 529
7.3. Means of improving flow characteristics ...................5 33
7.3.1. Heat treatment .................................... 533
7.3.2. Solvent addition., .................................. 538
7.3.3. Chemical treatment ................................. 540
7.3.4. Oil transport in a water bed ........................ 544
Chapter 8 . Pipeline transportation of natural gas .......................... 547
8.1. Physical and physico-chemical properties of natural gas ..... 647
8.1.1. Equation of state, compressibility, density, gravity ... 547
8.1.2. Viscosity ........................................... 553
8.1.3. Specific heat, molar heat, adiabatic gas exponent, Joule-
Thomson effect ..................................... 555
8.1.4. Hydrocarbon hydrates .............................. 558
8.2. Temperature of flowing gases ............................. 662
8.3. Steady-state flow in pipeline systems ...................... 564
8.3.1. Design fundamentals ................................ 564
8.3.2. Loopless systems ................................... 566
(a) Numerical methods ................................. 566
(b) Graphical methods .................................. 570
8.3.3. Looped system s .................................... 571
8.4. Transient flow in pipeline systems ........................ 581
8.4.1. Fundamental relationships ........................... 581
8.4.2. Flow in pipelines ................................... 582
(a) Matching the system to variable consumer demand .... 582
(b) Numerical solutions ................................. 586
8.4.3. Flow in pipeline systems ............................ 589
8.5. Computer modelling of gas transmission systems ........... 592
8.5.1. Case of the digital computer ........................ 592
(a) Application of the graph theory ..................... 593
(b) Review of system-modelling programs ................5 96
8.5.2. Case of the analog computer ........................ 600
8.6. Pipeline transportation of natural gas; economics ........... 602
Appendix ............................................................. 608
References ............................................................ 611
Subject index .......................................................... 625
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