Principles of Robotics & Artificial Intelligence

415 Pages·2018·33.75 MB·English

by  Donald R. Franceschetti, Ph.D.

Principles of Robotics
& Artificial Intelligence

Principles of Robotics
& Artificial Intelligence
Editor
Donald R. Franceschetti, PhD
SALEM PRESS
A Division of EBSCO Information Services
Ipswich, Massachusetts
GREY HOUSE PUBLISHING
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Publisher’s Cataloging-In-Publication Data
(Prepared by The Donohue Group, Inc.)
Names: Franceschetti, Donald R., 1947- editor.
Title: Principles of robotics & artificial intelligence / editor, Donald R. Franceschetti, PhD.
Other Titles: Principles of robotics and artificial intelligence
Description: [First edition]. | Ipswich, Massachusetts : Salem Press, a
division of EBSCO Information Services, Inc. ; Amenia, NY :
Grey House Publishing, [2018] | Series: Principles of | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: ISBN 9781682179420
Subjects: LCSH: Robotics. | Artificial intelligence.
Classification: LCC TJ211 .P75 2018 | DDC 629.892--dc23
First Printing
Printed in the United States of America
Contents
Publisher’s Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Data analytics (DA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Editor’s Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Deep learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Digital logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 DNA computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Advanced encryption standard (AES) . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Domain-specific language (DSL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Agile robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Empirical formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Evaluating expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Application programming interface (API) . . . . . . 10 Expert system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Artificial intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Extreme value theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Augmented reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Automated processes and servomechanisms . . . . . 19 Fiber technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Autonomous car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Fullerene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Avatars and simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Fuzzy logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Behavioral neuroscience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Game theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Binary pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Geoinformatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Biomechanical engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Go . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Biomechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Grammatology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Biomimetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Graphene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Bionics and biomedical engineering . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Graphics technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Bioplastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Bioprocess engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Holographic technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Human-computer interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Hydraulic engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
C++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Hypertext markup language (HTML) . . . . . . . . . 153
Central limit theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Charles Babbage’s difference and analytical Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Internet of Things (IoT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Client-server architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Interoperability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Cognitive science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Combinatorics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Computed tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Computer engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Computer languages, compilers, and tools . . . . . . 71 Limit of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Computer memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Linear programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Computer networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Local area network (LAN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Computer simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Computer software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Machine code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Computer-aided design and manufacturing . . . . . 84 Magnetic storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Continuous random variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Mechatronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Cybernetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Microcomputer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Cybersecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Microprocessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Cyberspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Multitasking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
v
Contents Principles of Robotics & Artificial Intelligence
Nanoparticle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Self-management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Nanotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Semantic web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Network interface controller (NIC) . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Network topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Neural engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Set notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Numerical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Siri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Smart city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Objectivity (science) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Smart homes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Object-oriented programming (OOP) . . . . . . . . . 208 Smart label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Open access (OA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Smartphones, tablets, and handheld devices . . . . 277
Optical storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Soft robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Solar cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Parallel computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Space drone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Pattern recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Speech recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Stem-and-leaf plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Pneumatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Structured query language (SQL) . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Polymer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Stuxnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Probability and statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Supercomputer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Programming languages for artificial
intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Turing test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Proportionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Public-key cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Unix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Video game design and programming . . . . . . . . . 300
Quantum computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Virtual reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247 Z3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Zombie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Time Line of Machine Learning and Artificial
Ruby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
A .M . Turing Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
Scale model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
Scientific control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
Scratch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386
vi
Publisher’s Note
Salem Press is pleased to add Principles of Robotics & Combinatrics, Cyberspace, Digital logic, Gramma-
Artificial Intelligence as the twelfth title in the Principles tology, Neural engineering, Interval, Biomimetics;
of series that includes Chemistry, Physics, Astronomy, and Soft robotics; and
Computer Science, Physical Science, Biology, Scientific ƒ Bibliography lists that relate to the entry .
Research, Sustainability, Biotechnology, Programming &
Coding and Climatology . This new resource introduces This reference work begins with a comprehensive
students and researchers to the fundamentals of ro- introduction to robotics and artificial intelligence,
botics and artificial intelligence using easy-to-under- written by volume editor Donald R . Franceschetti,
stand language for a solid background and a deeper PhD, Professor Emeritus of Physics and Material
understanding and appreciation of this important Science at the University of Memphis .
and evolving subject . All of the entries are arranged
in an A to Z order, making it easy to find the topic of The book includes helpful appendixes as another
interest . valuable resource, including the following:
Entries related to basic principles and concepts in- ƒ Time Line of Machine Learning and Artificial
clude the following: Intelligence, tracing the field back to ancient his-
ƒ A Summary that provides brief, concrete summary tory;
of the topic and how the entry is organized; ƒ A .M . Turing Award Winners, recognizing the
ƒ History and Background, to give context for work of pioneers and innovators in the field of
significant achievements in areas related to ro- computer science, robotics, and artificial intelli-
botics and artificial intelligence including math- gence;
ematics, biology, chemistry, physics, medicine, ƒ Glossary;
and education; ƒ General Bibliography and
ƒ Text that gives an explanation of the background ƒ Subject Index .
and significance of the topic to robotics and artifi-
cial intelligence by describing developments such Salem Press and Grey House Publishing extend
as Siri, facial recognition, augmented and virtual their appreciation to all involved in the development
reality, and autonomous cars; and production of this work . The entries have been
ƒ Applications and Products, Impacts, Concerns, written by experts in the field . Their names and affili-
and Future to discuss aspects of the entry that ations follow the Editor’s Introduction .
can have sweeping impact on our daily lives, in- Principles of Robotics & Artificial Intelligence, as well
cluding smart devices, homes, and cities; medical as all Salem Press reference books, is available in
devices; security and privacy; and manufacturing; print and as an e-book and on the Salem Press online
ƒ Illustrations that clarify difficult concepts via database, at https://online .salempress .com . Please
models, diagrams, and charts of such key topics as visit www .salempress .com for more information .
vii

Editor’s Introduction
Our technologically based civilization may well be holding (and sometimes hiding) meaning . Mythology,
poised to undergo a major transition as robotics and astrology, numerology, alchemy, and primitive reli-
artificial intelligence come into their own . This tran- gions have all assigned meanings to an alphabet of
sition is likely to be as earthshaking as the invention “symbols .” Getting to the heart of that symbolism is
of written language or the realization that the earth is a fascinating study . In the realm of AI, we begin with
not the center of the universe . Artificial intelligence numbers, from the development of simple algebra
(AI) permits human-made machines to act in an in- to the crisis in mathematical thinking that began in
telligent or purposeful, manner, like humans, as they the early nineteenth century, which means we must
acquire new knowledge, analyze and solve problems, turn to the Euclid’s mathematical treatise, Elements,
and much more . AI holds the potential to permit us to written around 300 bce . Scholars had long been im-
extend human culture far beyond what could ever be pressed by Euclidean geometry and the certainty it
achieved by a single individual . Robotics permits ma- seemed to provide about figures in the plane . There
chines to complete numerous tasks, more accurately was only one place where there was less than clarity .
and consistently, with less fatigue, and for longer It seemed that Euclid’s fifth postulate (that through
periods of time than human workers are capable of any point in the plane one could draw one and only
achieving . Some robots are even self-regulating . one straight line parallel to a given line) did not have
Not only are robotics and AI changing the world the same character as the other postulates . Various
of work and education, they are also capable of pro- attempts were made to derive this postulate from the
viding new insights into the nature of human activity others when finally, it was realized that that Euclid’s
as well . fifth postulate could be replaced by one stating that
The challenges related to understanding how no lines could be drawn parallel to the specified
AI and robotics can be integrated successfully into line or, alternatively, by one stating that an infinite
our society have raised several profound questions, number of lines could be drawn, distinct from each
ranging from the practical (Will robots replace hu- other but all passing through the point .
mans in the workplace? Could inhaling nanoparticles The notion that mathematicians were not so much
cause humans to become sick?) to the profound investigating the properties of physical space as the
(What would it take to make a machine capable of conclusions that could be drawn from a given set of
human reasoning? Will “grey goo” destroy man- axioms introduced an element of creativity, or, de-
kind?) . Advances and improvements to AI and ro- pending on one’s point of view, uncertainty, to the
botics are already underway or on the horizon, so we study of mathematics .
have chosen to concentrate on some of the impor- The Italian mathematician Giuseppe Peano tried
tant building blocks related to these very different to place the emphasis on arithmetic reasoning, which
technologies from fluid dynamics and hydraulics . one might assume was even less subject to controversy .
This goal of this essay as well as treatments of prin- He introduced a set of postulates that effectively de-
ciples and terms related to artificial intelligence and fined the non-negative integers, in a unique way . The
robotics in the individual articles that make up this essence of his scheme was the so-called principle of
book is to offer a solid framework for a more general induction: if P(N) is true for the integer N, and P(N)
discussion . Reading this material will not make you being true implies that P(N+1) is true, then P(N) is
an expert on AI or Robotics but it will enable you to true for all N . While seemingly seemingly self-apparent,
join in the conversation as we all do our best to deter- mathematical logicians distrusted the principle and
mine how machines capable of intelligence and inde- instead sought to derive a mathematics in which the
pendent action should interact with humans . postulate of induction was not needed . Perhaps the
most famous attempt in this direction was the publica-
Historical Background tion of Principia Mathematica, a three-volume treatise
Much of the current AI literature has its origin in no- by philosophers Bertrand Russell and Alfred North
tions derived from symbol processing . Symbols have Whitehead . This book was intended to do for math-
always held particular power for humans, capable of ematics what Isaac Newton’s Philosophiæ Naturalis
ix