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Principles of Exercise Neuroscience PDF

270 Pages·2020·5.174 MB·English
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Principles of Exercise Neuroscience Principles of Exercise Neuroscience Edited by Dawson J. Kidgell and Alan J. Pearce Principles of Exercise Neuroscience Edited by Dawson J. Kidgell and Alan J. Pearce This book first published 2020 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2020 by Dawson J. Kidgell and Alan J. Pearce and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-5813-4 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-5813-7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface ...................................................................................................... xii Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD and Alan J. Pearce, PhD Acknowledgements ................................................................................. xiv Chapter 1 .................................................................................................... 1 The Nexus between Neuroscience and the Science of Exercise Alan J. Pearce, PhD 1. Background ....................................................................................... 1 1.1 The neuroscience of human movement. .......................................... 2 1.2 What is ‘motor control’? How does motor control relate within the larger discipline of exercise science? ........................................ 4 1.3 Motor learning and skill acquisition: similarities and contrasts to motor control ............................................................................... 6 1.4 The challenge of translating neuroscience to exercise science ....... 8 1.5 How to get the best from this book ................................................. 8 References ............................................................................................. 9 Chapter 2 .................................................................................................. 10 Levels of Motor Control Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD and Alan J. Pearce, PhD 2. Background ..................................................................................... 10 2.1 Structural arrangement of the brain contributing to movement .... 11 2.1.1 Structure of the cerebral cortex ............................................ 11 2.1.2 The brain stem ...................................................................... 12 2.2 Transmission of cortical motor signals ......................................... 13 2.3 Motor functions of the cerebellum ................................................ 13 2.3.1 Anatomical and functional organisation of the cerebellum .... 14 2.3.2 Afferent and efferent pathways of the cerebellum ............... 15 2.4 Motor functions of the spinal cord ................................................ 16 2.4.1 Organisation of the spinal cord ............................................. 17 2.5 Types of reflex pathways .............................................................. 18 2.5.1 Skeletal muscle reflexes ....................................................... 19 2.6 Hierarchical organisation of motor control ................................... 21 vi Table of Contents 2.7 Motor units, fibre types, and recruitment physiology ................... 23 2.7.1 The motor unit ...................................................................... 23 2.7.2 Physiological classification and recruitment ........................ 24 2.8 Principle of motor unit recruitment ............................................... 25 2.9 Motor unit synchrony .................................................................... 26 2.9.1 Quantifying the degree of motor unit synchrony .................. 27 2.9.2 Motor unit synchronization and human motor control ......... 27 2.9.3 Motor unit synchronization in upper and lower limb muscles .................................................................................... 28 2.10 Summary ..................................................................................... 29 References ........................................................................................... 29 Chapter 3 .................................................................................................. 32 Techniques Contributing to the Understanding of Neuroscience in Exercise Alan J. Pearce, PhD and Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD 3. Background ..................................................................................... 32 3.1 Electroencephalography (EEG) .................................................... 33 3.2. Magnetoencephalography (MEG) ................................................ 34 3.3 Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) .................................... 35 3.3.1 Single-pulse TMS ................................................................. 36 3.3.2 Paired-pulse TMS ................................................................. 38 3.4 Voluntary activation and neural drive ........................................... 40 3.4.1 Interpolated twitch and VA ............................................. 40 TMS 3.4.2 H-reflex ................................................................................ 42 3.4.3 V-wave ................................................................................. 44 3.5 Summary ....................................................................................... 45 References ........................................................................................... 46 Chapter 4 .................................................................................................. 53 Principles of Neuroplasticity in Exercise Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD and Ashlyn K. Frazer, PhD 4. Neuroplasticity ................................................................................ 53 4.1 Mechanisms of neuroplasticity ..................................................... 53 4.2 Short and Long-term potentiation ................................................. 54 4.2.1 NMDA receptor activation and synaptic plasticity .............. 54 4.2.2 Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neuroplasticity ......... 55 4.3 Experimentally-induced neuroplasticity ....................................... 56 4.3.1 Transcranial direct current stimulation and neuroplasticity .... 57 4.3.2 NIBS and functional connectivity ........................................ 58 Principles of Exercise Neuroscience vii 4.4 Is the induction of neuroplasticity via NIBS important for motor performance? ................................................................................. 60 4.4.1 Is the magnitude of neuroplasticity and motor performance improvement related to the BDNF polymorphism? ................. 63 4.5 Is homeostatic plasticity important for motor performance? ........ 64 4.6 Use-dependent neuroplasticity ...................................................... 67 4.7 Summary ....................................................................................... 68 References ........................................................................................... 69 Chapter 5 .................................................................................................. 76 Non-invasive Brain Stimulation and Exercise Performance Shapour Jaberzadeh, PhD and Maryam Zoghi, PhD 5. Introduction ..................................................................................... 76 5.1 Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation ....................................... 77 5.2 The mechanisms behind tDCS effects during stimulation (online effects) .............................................................................. 78 5.3 The mechanisms behind tDCS effects after the termination of stimulation ................................................................................ 79 5.4 Montages for application of tDCS: The conventional montage .... 80 5.4.1 HD-tDCS montage ............................................................... 80 5.4.2 Other tDCS montages ........................................................... 81 5.5 tDCS as a stand-alone technique ................................................... 82 5.6 tDCS as a priming technique ........................................................ 82 5.7 Halo sport tDCS device ................................................................ 82 5.8 The effects of tDCS on EP ............................................................ 83 5.9 Ethical considerations for the use of tDCS for enhancement of EP .............................................................................................. 85 5.10 Summary ..................................................................................... 86 References ........................................................................................... 86 Chapter 6 .................................................................................................. 92 Neural Control of Lengthening and Shortening Contractions Jamie Tallent, PhD and Glyn Howatson, PhD 6. Background ..................................................................................... 92 6.1 Shortening and Lengthening Contractions .................................... 92 6.1.1 Benefits of lengthening contractions .................................... 93 6.2 Motor control of lengthening and shortening muscle contractions . 93 6.2.1 Muscle .................................................................................. 94 6.2.2 Spinal .................................................................................... 94 6.2.3 Cortico-Spinal ...................................................................... 95 6.3 Adaptations to shortening and lengthening resistance training ..... 97 viii Table of Contents 6.4 Summary ..................................................................................... 100 References ......................................................................................... 101 Chapter 7 ................................................................................................ 107 Neural Adaptations to Strength Training Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD 7. Background ................................................................................... 107 7.1 Acute neural responses to strength training ................................ 107 7.2 Using TMS to assess the neural responses to strength training ..... 108 7.3 MEPs are acutely facilitated following a strength training session ......................................................................................... 109 7.4 Intracortical facilitation is acutely enhanced following a strength training session ............................................................................ 110 7.5 Why does strength training increase corticospinal excitability and intracortical facilitation of the motor cortex? ....................... 111 7.6 Long-term neuroplastic adaptations to strength training ............. 114 7.7 Changes in strength following 2-8 weeks of strength training .... 116 7.8 Long-term strength training does not affect motor threshold or MEP amplitude ............................................................................ 117 7.9 Long-term strength training reduces motor cortex mediated inhibition ..................................................................................... 118 7.10 Changes in spinal cord plasticity with strength training ........... 120 7.11 Changes in H-reflex and V-wave amplitude following strength training ........................................................................................ 120 7.12 Changes in motor unit activity following strength training ...... 122 7.12.1 Single motor unit behaviour following strength training .. 123 7.12.2 Motor unit synchronization following strength training ... 124 7.13 Summary ................................................................................... 125 References ......................................................................................... 125 Chapter 8 ................................................................................................ 133 Neuromuscular Responses to Fatiguing Locomotor Exercise Callum Brownstein, PhD and Kevin Thomas, PhD 8. Background ................................................................................... 133 8.1 The role of exercise intensity and duration on neuromuscular responses to fatiguing exercise .................................................... 135 8.2 Neuromuscular responses to “all-out” exercise .......................... 136 8.3 Neuromuscular responses to severe intensity, short-duration exercise ........................................................................................ 139 8.4 Neuromuscular responses to sustained exercise below critical power ........................................................................................... 141 Principles of Exercise Neuroscience ix 8.5 Neuromuscular responses to high-intensity intermittent exercise ........................................................................................ 144 8.6 The effect of exercise modality on neuromuscular responses to locomotor exercise .................................................................. 146 8.7 Effect of exercise duration and intensity on recovery ................. 148 8.8 Origin of prolonged impairments in contractile function ............ 151 8.9 Origin of prolonged impairments in voluntary activation ........... 152 8.10 Summary ................................................................................... 153 References ......................................................................................... 153 Chapter 9 ................................................................................................ 160 Sex Differences in Neuromuscular Function and Fatigability Paul Ansdell, PhD and Stuart Goodall, PhD 9. Introduction ................................................................................... 160 9.1. A brief history of the scientific study of sex and performance .. 160 9.2. Sex differences throughout the motor pathway .......................... 161 9.2.1. Pre-motor processes .......................................................... 162 9.2.2. Intracortical and corticospinal neurons .............................. 163 9.2.3. Motor unit properties ......................................................... 164 9.2.4. Contractile apparatus ......................................................... 165 9.3. Functional neuromuscular sex differences ................................. 165 9.3.1. Maximal force production ................................................. 165 9.3.2. Force steadiness and accuracy ........................................... 166 9.3.3. Fatigability ........................................................................ 166 9.4. Female-specific neuromuscular function ................................... 169 9.4.1. The influence of hormones in vitro ................................... 169 9.4.2. In-vitro evidence ............................................................... 169 9.4.3. Functional changes across the menstrual cycle ................. 170 9.5. Summary .................................................................................... 173 9.5.1. What do we know already? ............................................... 173 9.5.2. Where do we go from here? .............................................. 174 References ......................................................................................... 174 Chapter 10 .............................................................................................. 185 Motor Control Responses following Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage Carlos Hermano Pinheiro, PhD and Alan J. Pearce, PhD 10. Background ................................................................................. 185 10.1 How does DOMS occur? .......................................................... 186 10.2 Functional outcomes affected by DOMS .................................. 188 10.3 Neuromuscular and motor control changes following DOMS .. 189 10.4 Neurophysiological studies in DOMS ...................................... 191 x Table of Contents 10.5 Summary ................................................................................... 192 References ......................................................................................... 192 Chapter 11 .............................................................................................. 196 Neuromuscular Alterations and Motor Performance in Healthy Aging Jakob Škarabot, PhD 11. Background ................................................................................. 196 11.1 Alterations in the central nervous system with advancing age .... 197 11.1.1 Alterations at the level of motor unit ................................ 197 11.1.2 The influence of synaptic inputs from spinal and supraspinal centres ................................................................. 197 11.1.3 Reflex inputs to motoneurons ........................................... 198 11.1.4 Cortical inputs to motoneurons ........................................ 199 11.2 Reduction in motor performance in healthy aging adults ......... 200 11.2.1 Motor performance during maximal contractions ............ 200 11.2.2 Control of muscle force output during submaximal tasks .. 204 11.2.3 Fatigability ....................................................................... 206 11.3 Summary ................................................................................... 208 References ......................................................................................... 209 Chapter 12 .............................................................................................. 222 Cross-education Ashlyn K. Frazer, PhD and Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD 12. Background ................................................................................. 222 12.1 Evidence of cross-education ..................................................... 222 12.2 Exercise prescription parameters .............................................. 223 12.3 Mechanisms of cross-education ................................................ 225 12.4 Interventions to enhance the cross-education effect .................. 228 12.4.1 Transcranial direct current stimulation and cross- education ................................................................................ 228 12.4.2 Electromyostimulation during cross-education ................ 229 12.4.3 Whole-body vibration (WBV) training and cross- education ................................................................................ 230 12.5 Cross-education and neuromuscular injury ............................... 231 12.6 Summary ................................................................................... 232 References ......................................................................................... 232

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