Principles of Animal Physiology

763 Pages·2014·53.45 MB·English

by  Christopher D. Moyes

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Principles of Animal Physiology
Christopher D. Moyes
ISBN 978-1-29202-638-1
Patricia M. Schulte
Second Edition
9 781292 026381
Principles of Animal Physiology
Christopher D. Moyes
Patricia M. Schulte
Second Edition
ISBN 10: 1-292-02638-3
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02638-1
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England and Associated Companies throughout the world
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ISBN 10: 1-292-02638-3
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02638-1
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Printed in the United States of America
11223345562416273740501646824460086
P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R AR Y
Table of Contents
Glossary
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 1
1. Introduction to Physiological Principles
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 26
2. Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Cell Physiology
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 44
3. Cell Signaling and Endocrine Regulation
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 116
4. Neuron Structure and Function
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 168
5. Cellular Movement and Muscles
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 222
6. Sensory Systems
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 274
7. Functional Organization of Nervous Systems
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 334
8. Circulatory Systems
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 376
9. Respiratory Systems
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 440
10. Ion and Water Balance
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 500
11. Digestion
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 558
12. Locomotion
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 606
I
677777603344007903
13. Thermal Physiology
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 660
14. Reproduction
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 700
Appendix: The International System of Units
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 737
Appendix: Logarithms
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 739
Appendix: Linear, Exponential, Power, and Allometric Functions
Christopher D. Moyes/Patricia M. Schulte 740
Index 743
II
Glossary action potential A relatively large- adrenal cortex See adrenal gland.
amplitude, rapid change in the adrenal gland A gland near the
membrane potential of an excitable kidney, which in mammals is
cell as a result of the opening and composed of an outermost layer (the
closing of voltage-gated ion channels; adrenal cortex) and an inner layer
A-band (or anisotropic band) The
involved in transmitting signals (adrenal medulla).
region of a muscle sarcomere where
across long distances in the nervous adrenal medulla See adrenal gland.
the thick filaments occur.
system. adrenergic receptors Receptors for
absolute refractory period The period
activation energy (E ) The energetic the catecholamines norepinephrine
during and immediately following an a
barrier that must be reached before a and epinephrine.
action potential in which an excitable
reactant can be transformed into a adrenoreceptors See adrenergic
cell cannot generate another action
product. receptors.
potential, no matter how strong the
activation gate One of the two gates aerobic Occurring in, or depending on,
stimulus.
that open and close voltage-gated the presence of oxygen.
absolute temperature A measure of
sodium channels (see also aerobic scope The ratio of the
temperature in kelvins, where 0 K
inactivation gate). maximal aerobic metabolic rate to
(absolute zero) is the temperature at
active site A region of an enzyme that the basal metabolic rate, typically in
which there is no atomic or
binds the substrate and undergoes the range of 3–10.
molecular movement. 1 unit on the
conformational changes to catalyze afferent Leading toward a region of
Kelvin scale equals 1°on the Celsius
scale. 0 K (cid:2)(cid:3)273°C. the reaction. interest (see also efferent).
active state The phase of a cross- afferent neuron A neuron that
acclimation A persistent but reversible
bridge cycle in which myosin is conducts a signal from the periphery
change in a physiological function
attached to actin and generating to an integrating center (see also
that occurs as a result of an
force. sensory neuron).
alteration in an environmental
active transport Protein-mediated affinity A measure of the degree of
parameter, such as temperature or
movement of a substance across a attraction between a ligand and a
photoperiod. Acclimation usually
membrane with the utilization of molecule that binds the ligand (see
occurs as a result of an experimental
some form of energy. Primary active also K ).
manipulation (see also m
transport uses ATP. Secondary active affinity constant (or K)Reciprocal of
acclimatization). a
transport uses an electrochemical the dissociation constant.
acclimatization A reorganization of
gradient (see also facilitated after-hyperpolarization A prolonged
physiological functions that occurs as
diffusion, passive transport). hyperpolarization following an action
a result of complex environmental
acuity, sensory The ability to resolve potential.
changes, such as season or altitude
fine detail of a stimulus. aglomerular kidney A derived form of
(see also acclimation).
acute response The rapid phase of kidney, with tubules that lack a
accommodation The process by which
response to an external or internal glomerulus, found in many lineages
an eye changes its focal length.
change in conditions, usually within of marine fish.
Accommodation allows the eye to
seconds to minutes. agonist A substance that binds to a
produce a focused image of objects at
adaptation Used in two contexts in receptor and initiates a signaling
different distances.
physiology: (1) a change in the event. May include both the natural
acetyl CoA An activated form of
genetic structure of a population as a endogenous ligand as well as
acetate that serves as the entry point
result of natural selection; (2) a pharmaceutical agents that mimic the
for carbon into the TCA cycle.
reversible change in a physiological natural substance.
acetylcholine A neurotransmitter found
parameter that provides a beneficial albumen A protein found in eggs that
in most animal species in many types
response to an environmental cushions the embryo.
of neurons, including motor neurons
change. Evolutionary and albumin A binding globulin (carrier
and the autonomic ganglia of
comparative physiologists prefer to protein) that is one of the primary
vertebrates.
use only the first definition. proteins of vertebrate plasma; makes
acetylcholinesterase An enzyme that
adaptation, sensory See receptor a major contribution to blood osmotic
catalyzes the breakdown of
adaptation. pressure.
acetylcholine into choline and
adenine A purine nitrogenous base aldosterone Mineralocorticoid
acetate.
component of nucleotides, including hormone secreted by the adrenal
acid A chemical that donates a proton
nucleic acids. cortex. Its main function is to alter
(see also base). adenosine A nucleoside composed of the levels of Na(cid:6)and K(cid:6)in the urine,
acidosis A decrease in pH arising
adenine and the sugar deoxyribose, secondarily affecting water transport.
through respiration (respiratory
important as a signaling molecule. alkaloids A large group of compounds
acidosis) or metabolism (metabolic
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) A derived from plants that have
acidosis).
nucleotide composed of the pharmacological effects in animals.
acrosomal reaction The exocytosis of
nucleoside adenine with two alkalosis The condition of being
the enzyme-laden acrosomal vesicle
phosphate groups, with a single high- alkaline (see also metabolic alkalosis,
of sperm in response to contact with
energy phosphodiester bond. respiratory alkalosis).
the ovum.
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) A allantoic membrane One of four
acrosome A vesicle in sperm that
nucleotide composed of the membranes in an amniote egg.
contains digestive enzymes that
nucleoside adenine with three allantoin An intermediate in
enable the sperm to penetrate the
phosphate groups, with two high- nucleotide breakdown and uric acid
outer layers of an ovum.
energy phosphodiester bonds. synthesis; an important form of
actin G-actin is a monomeric protein
adenylate cyclase (adenylyl cyclase) nitrogenous waste for some animals.
that can be polymerized to construct
The enzyme that converts ATP to allatostatin A neuropeptide hormone
filamentous actin (F-actin). Actin is
cyclic AMP. in arthropods that inhibits the corpus
the basis of both cytoskeletal
adhesion plaque A membrane protein allatum from secreting juvenile
microfilaments (composed of the (cid:4)-
complex that anchors thin filaments hormone.
actin isoform of G-actin) and skeletal
to the membrane. allatotropin A neuropeptide hormone
thin filaments (composed of the (cid:5)-
adipose tissue A tissue composed of in arthropods that stimulates the
actin isoform of G-actin) (see also
fat cells (adipocytes) that produce corpus allatum to secrete juvenile
myosin).
and store lipid. hormone.
actinomyosin The combination of actin
ADP See adenosine diphosphate. alleles Different forms of the same
and myosin, joined by a cross-bridge.
protein that are encoded by the same
From Principles of Animal Physiology, Second Edition. Christopher D. Moyes, Patricia M. Schulte.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
1
GLOSSARY
gene but differ slightly in primary amylase An enzyme that breaks down anus The sphincter through which
sequence. starch (amylose, amylopectin). feces exit the gastrointestinal tract.
allometry (or allometric scaling) The anabolic pathways (or anabolism) aorta The major artery exiting the
pattern seen when comparing Metabolic reactions or pathways that heart.
structural or functional parameters in build complex molecules from aortic body A sensory structure
relation to body size. simpler molecules. located in the vertebrate aorta that
allosteric regulator A molecule that anadromous The life history strategy contains baroreceptors and
binds an enzyme at a site distinct of an animal living most of its life in chemoreceptors.
from the substrate binding site to the sea, then returning to apical The end of a structure opposite
regulate activity. freshwater to reproduce (see also the base.
allosteric site A region of an enzyme, catadromous). apical membrane The end of the cell
distinct from the active site, that anaerobic Without oxygen. Pertains to furthest from the basolateral
binds a molecule other than the an environment without oxygen, or a membrane; the membrane oriented
substrate or product, triggering a pathway that occurs in the absence of away from the circulatory system.
structural change that alters the oxygen (see also aerobic). apnea A period without breathing.
catalytic properties of the enzyme. anaplerotic pathway (or anaplerosis) apocrine A type of secretion whereby
allozyme An allelic variant of an A metabolic reaction that replenishes the cell sheds the apical region of
enzyme. intermediates of pathways. plasma membrane as part of a
(cid:2)adrenergic receptor A G-protein- anastomosis A convergence of two or signaling pathway.
linked cell membrane receptor that more branches of a tubular structure; apoenzyme The proteinaceous part of
binds norepinephrine preferentially, e.g., a direct connection between two an enzyme.
with a lower affinity for epinephrine. arteries in the circulatory system. aquaporin A large tetrameric channel
(cid:2)-helix A secondary structure of anatomical dead space The portion of that allows the passage of water
protein or DNA in which the a respiratory structure that cannot through the plasma membrane.
molecule twists in a characteristic participate in gas exchange (e.g., the arginine phosphate A major
pattern, with structure stabilized by trachea and bronchi). phosphagen in invertebrates, which
hydrogen bonds between adjacent androgens Steroid hormones performs the same role as creatine
regions. structurally related to testosterone phosphate in vertebrates.
alternative splicing One of the that control masculine features. aromatase See cytochrome P450
processes that can result in different anemia A condition in which the aromatase.
mRNAs being coded by a single gene. number of erythrocytes or Arrhenius plot A curve relating
Different exons of the gene are hemoglobin in the blood is lower temperature to activity, enabling the
spliced out in each mRNA, resulting than normal. calculation of activation energy.
in a number of possible angiogenesis Synthesis of new blood arteriole A small branch of the arterial
combinations. vessels, often in response to local network immediately preceding a
alveoli (singular: alveolus) The site of hypoxia. capillary bed (see venule).
gas exchange in mammalian lungs. angiotensin A peptide hormone that artery A large blood vessel carrying
ambient External or environmental controls blood pressure. Its precursor blood away from the heart.
conditions, such as ambient is angiotensinogen, which is cleaved asexual reproduction Production of
temperature. by renin to form angiotensin I. This offspring without the fertilization of
amine A class of molecules based on decapeptide is cleaved to the final an ovum by a sperm (see also
ammonia, with a side group form, angiotensin II, an octapeptide. automictic parthenogenesis).
substituting for at least one N atom. angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) assimilation Conversion of dietary
amino acid Organic molecules with at An enzyme that converts angiotensin nutrients into metabolizable fuels.
least one amino group and at least I to angiotensin II. assimilation efficiency Proportion of
one carboxyl group. The amino acids anion An ion with a negative charge. dietary nutrients successfully
that are used to build proteins are (cid:4)- anoxic See anaerobic. assimilated.
amino acids. antagonist A substance that binds to a astrocytes Vertebrate glial cells that
ammonia A general term that includes receptor but does not stimulate a help to support and regulate the
both NH and NH(cid:6)(ammonium), signaling event. Antagonists interfere action of neurons in the central
3 4
potent neurotoxins. with the binding of the natural nervous system.
ammoniotele An animal with an ligand. asynchronous muscle A muscle in
excretory strategy in which more than antagonistic controls For a given step which a single neuronal stimulation
half of the nitrogen is excreted as or pathway, sets of controls that exert causes multiple cycles of contraction
ammonia (see also ureotele, uricotele). opposing effects. and relaxation.
amniote Vertebrates with an amnion, antagonistic muscle A muscle that ATP See adenosine triphosphate.
namely reptiles, birds, and opposes the movement of another ATP-binding cassette A common
mammals. muscle. structural motif found in diverse
amphibolic pathway A metabolic anterior pituitary gland The anterior proteins that binds ATP.
pathway that both synthesizes lobe of the pituitary gland of ATPase A class of proteins, including
(catabolic) and degrades (anabolic) vertebrates, also called the enzymes and transporters, that
metabolites. adenohypophysis; secretes tropic couples ATP hydrolysis to a
amphipathic A molecule with both hormones. mechanical or chemical process.
hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts. antidiuretic A substance that induces ATPS Standardized reference condition
amplification An exponential increase a reduction in urine volume. for measuring gas volumes: ambient
in activity from one step of a pathway antifreeze protein A protein that temperature, pressure, and saturated
to the next; typically used in the disrupts the growth of ice crystals, with water.
context of signal transduction allowing an organism to survive atresia The programmed cell death
pathways. subzero temperatures. (apoptosis) of follicles other than the
ampullae of Lorenzini Polymodal antigen A substance, usually a protein, dominant follicle that matures during
receptors that detect both electrical that induces the formation of an the ovulatory cycle.
and mechanical stimuli; found on the antibody that can bind the antigen. atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) A
nose of sharks. antiport (or exchanger) A transport peptide hormone produced in the
amygdala A part of the limbic system protein that exchanges one ion (or heart that exerts effects on ion and
of the vertebrate brain that is molecule) for another ion (or water balance that tend to reduce
involved in emotional responses such molecule) on the opposite side of a blood pressure. It increases urine
as fear and anger. membrane. volume and Na(cid:6)excretion.
2
GLOSSARY
atrioventricular node (AV node) Part axoneme The microtubule-based taurine; assist in emulsification of
of the conducting pathways of the structure that underlies flagella and lipid within the small intestine.
mammalian heart; delays conduction cilia. binocular vision The ability to
of the electrical signal between the axosomatic synapse A synapse formed compare the images coming from two
atrium and ventricles. between the axon terminal of one eyes to produce three-dimensional
atrium (plural: atria) One of the neuron and the soma (cell body) of perception.
chambers of a heart. Blood moves another neuron. biogenic amine A class of
from the atrium to the ventricle. neurotransmitters derived from
atrophy Loss of tissue mass as a result baroreceptor A receptor that senses amino acids including the
of dying cells; often seen with pressure (by sensing the resulting catecholamines and dopamine.
locomotor muscle in response to stretch on the cell membrane). bioluminescence The production of
prolonged periods of inactivity. basal lamina The extracellular matrix light by living organisms.
August Krogh principle Principle that underlying a sheet of epithelial cells; bipolar neuron A neuron with two
for every biological problem, there is part of the connective tissue formed main processes leading from the cell
an organism on which it can most largely by fibroblasts. body, one of which conveys signals
conveniently be studied. basal metabolic rate (BMR) The toward the cell body, and one of
autocrine A type of cell signaling in metabolic rate of an homeothermic which conveys signals away from the
which a single cell signals another animal at rest, at a thermal neutral cell body.
cell of the same type, including itself. temperature, and post-absorptive blastocoel The cavity formed by the
automictic parthenogenesis (see also resting metabolic rate, inpouching of the blastocyst, which
Production of offspring by a female in standard metabolic rate). eventually forms the alimentary
which the second polar body fuses basal nuclei Interconnected groups of canal.
with the ovum to produce a diploid gray matter within the mammalian blastocyst The hollow sphere of cells
offspring. brain. formed early in embryonic
autonomic division (of the nervous base A molecule that accepts a proton, development.
system) See autonomic nervous or otherwise causes a reduction in bleaching The fading of a
system. proton concentration through effects photopigment following absorption of
autonomic ganglia Ganglia of the on the dissociation of water. energy from photons. In the case of
vertebrate peripheral nervous system. basement membrane See also basal the retinal-opsin complex, absorption
autonomic nervous system Part of the lamina. of energy from light causes retinal to
vertebrate peripheral nervous system basilar membrane The location of the dissociate from opsin. Opsin is not
that controls largely involuntary auditory hair cells in the mammalian pigmented, and thus the
functions such as heart rate. It is cochlea. photopigment loses its color.
divided into three main branches: the basophil A type of white blood cell that blood The circulatory fluid in animals
sympathetic, parasympathetic, and releases histamine; involved in the with closed circulatory systems.
enteric nervous systems. vertebrate immune response. Generally contains proteins, ions,
autotrophy An organism that batch reactor A chemical reactor in organic molecules, and various cell
synthesizes its own nutrients from which nutrients enter and exit types.
inorganic material, using the energy through the same opening; nutrients blood-brain barrier A specialized
of the sun (photoautotroph) or are retained in the reactor and protective barrier made up of glial
inorganic reactions digested; the undigested material is cells that separates the circulatory
(chemoautotrophs). then expelled, and replaced by system and the central nervous
Avogadro’s number The number of another batch of nutrients to be system in vertebrates.
molecules in a mole (6.02252 ×1023). processed. blood vessels Tubes that carry blood
axoaxonic synapse A synapse formed behavioral thermoregulation The use through an animal’s body.
between the axon terminal of one of behavior to control the body blubber Subcutaneous lipid deposits of
neuron and the axon of another temperature of a poikilotherm, or to marine mammals, which provide
neuron (at any point along its length). reduce the costs of thermoregulation thermal insulation.
axodendritic synapse A synapse for a homeotherm. Bohr effect A change in hemoglobin
formed between the axon terminal of (cid:5)-oxidation Pathway of fatty acid oxygen affinity due to a change in
one neuron and the dendrite of catabolism that produces acetyl CoA pH.
another neuron. and reducing equivalents. bolus A volume of material introduced
axon A projection of the cell body of a (cid:5)-sheet Protein folding pattern in into a flow-through system that
neuron that is involved in carrying which stretches of amino acids are moves through the system as a unit,
information, usually in the form of aligned along another amino acid with some dispersion along the way;
action potentials, from the cell body stretch. This secondary structure is often used in the context of a bolus of
to the axon terminal. stabilized by hydrogen bonds. food moving through the
axon hillock The junction between the bilateral symmetry A body form in gastrointestinal tract.
cell body and axon of a neuron. In which the body can be divided by a bombesin A hormone that regulates
many neurons, the axon hillock is the single plane such that the right and release of gastrointestinal hormones
site of action potential initiation, left sides are approximate mirror and control of gastrointestinal
acting as the trigger zone for the images. motility in vertebrates.
neuron. bile A thick, yellow-green fluid bond energy The energy required to
axon terminal The distal end of an composed of salts, pigments, and form a chemical bond.
axon that forms a synapse with an lipids produced by the liver and stored bone In vertebrates, a solid structure
effector cell or neuron. by the gallbladder; when released into composed of mineralized
axon varicosity A type of synapse in the small intestine it neutralizes extracellular matrix of osteocytes;
which the presynaptic cell releases gastric acid and aids in the digestion with cartilage and tendon, it
neurotransmitter at a series of of nutrients, particularly lipids. constitutes the skeleton.
swellings along the axon. bile duct The connection between the book gills The respiratory surfaces of
axonal transport Cytoskeletal- liver and the small intestine. water-breathing chelicerates such as
mediated movement of organelles bile pigments Nondigestible horseshoe crabs.
and vesicles along the length of an breakdown products of porphyrins, book lungs The respiratory surfaces of
axon. including the hemes found in some air-breathing chelicerates such
axonemal dyneins Motor proteins that hemoglobin and cytochromes. as spiders and scorpions.
enable the sliding of microtubules in bile salts Cholic acid conjugated with boundary layer The region of a
cilia and flagella. amino acids, primarily glycine and solution that is in direct contact or
3
GLOSSARY
otherwise influenced by a surface; cable properties The electrical carotid rete A network of blood
often called an unstirred layer. properties of axons. vessels that cools the brain.
Bowman’s capsule A cup-shaped calcium-induced calcium release A carrier protein (or binding protein;
expansion of the vertebrate kidney mode of muscle activation where binding globulin) Blood proteins
tubule; surrounds the glomerulus. calcium crossing the sarcolemma that help to transport hydrophobic
brackish water Water that is through a Ca2(cid:6)channel causes a Ca2(cid:6) molecules (such as steroid hormones)
intermediate between freshwater and channel in the sarcoplasmic reticulum in the blood.
seawater; typically found in estuaries, to open. carrier-mediated transport All forms
salt marshes, or isolated ponds. caldesmon A calcium-binding protein of transport across membranes that
bradycardia A heart rate that is important in the regulation of smooth require a protein.
slower than normal. muscle contractility. cartilage In vertebrates, a semisolid
brain A large grouping of ganglia that calmodulin A calcium-sensing protein structure composed of the
act as a sophisticated integrating involved in many signal transduction extracellular matrix of chondrocytes:
center. Typically located toward the pathways. the major component of the skeleton
anterior end of the body in the caloric deficit The condition in which of chondrichthians but important in
cephalic (head) region. energy derived from the diet is less other vertebrates as a cushion
brainstem A portion of the vertebrate than energetic expenditure, resulting between joints.
central nervous system that connects in net loss of energy by the animal. catabolic pathway (or catabolism) A
the cerebrum of the brain to the calorie A unit of heat equal to 4.2 metabolic pathway that degrades
spinal cord; contains the pons and joules; nutritional literature may macromolecules into smaller
medulla, the sites of the respiratory refer to the unit Calorie, which is molecules.
and cardiovascular control centers. equivalent to 1000 calories. The unit catadromous A life history strategy of
branchial Relating to gills. of heat required to raise 1 g of water fish (e.g., eels) in which the adult
bronchi (singular: bronchus) Airways at 1 atm by 1°C. migrates from freshwater to seawater
of vertebrate lungs leading from the calorimetry The measurement of heat to breed (see also anadromous).
trachea to the bronchioles. production as an index of metabolic catalysis The progression of a
bronchioles The smallest branches of rate. chemical reaction that proceeds with
the airways of mammalian lungs; calsequestrin A calcium-binding the help of a catalyst.
lead to the terminal alveoli. protein that allows a muscle to catalyst A molecule that accelerates
brood spot A well-vascularized, concentrate Ca2(cid:6)within the chemical reactions but is not changed
featherless region on the underside of sarcoplasmic reticulum. in the process.
birds that is important for warming cAMP (cyclic AMP) A second catalytic rate constant (k ) The
cat
developing eggs. messenger produced by adenylate number of reactions catalyzed by a
brown adipose tissue Also known as cyclase; most important action is the single molecule of enzyme per second.
brown fat, a thermogenic tissue stimulation of protein kinase A. catecholamines The biogenic amines
found in many small mammals, often capacitation A maturation step epinephrine and norepinephrine.
in the back or neck region. Abundant experienced by sperm after they cation An ion with a positive charge.
mitochondria in the brown encounter fluids from the female caudal A location near the posterior of
adipocytes possess thermogenin, a reproductive tract. an animal.
protein that uncouples oxidative capillary The smallest of the blood cecum A blind-ended sac that carries
phosphorylation to enhance heat vessels in a closed circulatory system; out digestive reactions in the
production. the site of exchange of materials with gastrointestinal tract.
brush border Abundant microvilli on the tissues. cell body See soma.
epithelial cells in the gastrointestinal carbaminohemoglobin Hemoglobin cell membrane See plasma membrane.
tract, giving the tissue a microscopic bound to carbon dioxide. cellular membranes A general term
brushlike appearance. carbohydrate A group of organic that refers to the collection of
BTPS Standardized reference molecules that share a membranes within a cell, including
conditions for measuring gas preponderance of hydroxyl groups plasma membrane and organelle
volumes: body temperature, (see also disaccharide, membranes.
atmospheric pressure, and saturated monosaccharide, polysaccharide). cellulose A glucose polymer that
with water. carbonic anhydrase (CA) An enzyme serves a structural role in plants;
buccal cavity Mouth cavity. that catalyzes the conversion of indigestible by most animals without
buffer Chemicals which, when placed carbon dioxide and water to the assistance of symbionts.
in solution, confer on the solution an bicarbonate and protons. central chemoreceptors A group of
ability to resist changes in pH when carboxyhemoglobin Hemoglobin chemoreceptors located in the
acid or base is added. bound to carbon monoxide. medulla of vertebrate brains.
bulbourethral gland A mucus- cardiac muscle A form of striated central lacteal A small, saclike vessel
secreting accessory gland of the male muscle that occurs in the heart. in an intestinal villus; collects lipids
reproductive tract. cardiac output The volume of blood that cross the intestinal epithelium.
bulbus arteriosus The outflow pumped by the heart per unit time; central nervous system The portion of
tract of the heart in bony fishes; the product of heart rate and stroke the nervous system containing the
nonmuscular and elastic (see also volume. primary integrating centers. In
conus arteriosus). cardiomyocyte A muscle cell found in vertebrates it consists of the brain
bulk flow The movement of a fluid as a the heart. and spinal cord. In invertebrates, it
result of a pressure or temperature cardiovascular control center A consists of the brain, the major
gradient. region of the brain within the ganglia, and the connecting
bulk phase (or bulk solution) The medulla oblongata that is involved in commissures.
volume of solution that is beyond the regulating heart rate and blood central pattern generator A group of
influence of the surfaces (see also pressure. neurons located in the central
boundary layer). cardiovascular system An alternate nervous system that produce a
bundle of His One of the conducting term for the circulatory system of rhythmic neural output.
pathways of the mammalian heart. animals such as vertebrates. Consists cephalic Toward the anterior end of an
burst exercise High-intensity of the heart, blood, and blood vessels. animal.
exercise powered by glycolytic carotid body A structure located in the cephalization An evolutionary trend
muscle fibers; can continue for only carotid artery leading to the head of toward the centralization of nervous
short periods, until glycogen stores vertebrates; contains baroreceptors and sensory functions at the anterior
are exhausted. and chemoreceptors. end of the body (in the head).
4
GLOSSARY
cerebellum A part of the vertebrate cholesterol A steroid compound cloaca The distal portion of the
hindbrain that is involved in produced from isoprene units; hindgut in some fishes, amphibians,
maintaining balance and present in cellular membranes and birds, and reptiles; in these species
coordinating voluntary muscle acts as a precursor for steroid both excretory and reproductive
movement. hormones. products are emitted into the cloaca,
cerebral cortex Outer surface of the cholinergic receptor A receptor that and leave the body via a single
vertebrate brain. binds the signaling molecule opening.
cerebral hemispheres Paired acetylcholine. Cholinergic receptors clonal reproduction A form of asexual
structures of the cerebrum (part of can be divided into nicotinic and reproduction whereby an animal
the vertebrate forebrain). The muscarinic receptors. produces a genotypically identical
cerebral hemispheres are the most chondrocytes The cells that produce offspring (a clone).
obvious structures of a mammalian cartilage. closed circulatory system A
brain. chorion The outer protein layer of an circulatory system in which the blood
cerebral ventricle See ventricle. insect egg; the outer membrane of a remains within a series of enclosed
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) A fluid vertebrate ovum. blood vessels throughout the
contained within the meninges that chorionic gonadotropin (CG) A third circulation.
surrounds the brain and spinal cord gonadotropin of vertebrates, cochlea Spiral structure in the inner
of vertebrates. produced by the placenta but only in ear of mammals; contains the organs
cerebrum The largest part of the primates. of hearing. Less elaborate, but
mammalian forebrain. chromaffin cells Cells that secrete the present in birds as the cochlear duct.
cGMP See cyclic GMP. hormone epinephrine (adrenaline). In Derived from the lagena of other
cGMP phosphodiesterase An enzyme mammals they are located in the vertebrates.
that cleaves cGMP, producing GMP. compact adrenal medulla, but in coelom The internal compartment of
channel A transport protein that other vertebrates they are more coelomate animals that forms
facilitates the movement of specific dispersed. between two layers of mesoderm.
ions or molecules across a cellular chromophore A molecule that is able coenzymes Organic cofactors.
membrane down an electrochemical to absorb light. In photoreception, coenzyme A A coenzyme derived from
gradient. the chromophore absorbs the energy the vitamin pantothenic acid.
chaperone protein See molecular from incoming photons and cofactors Nonprotein components of
chaperone. undergoes a conformational change, enzymes, including metals,
chemical energy The energy which sends a signal to an associated coenzymes, and prosthetic groups.
associated with the reorganization G protein, in the first step of visual coitus Sexual intercourse.
of the chemical structure of a phototransduction. collagen A trimeric protein found in
molecule. chromosome A single, contiguous extracellular matrix. It interacts with
chemical gradient An area across polymer of DNA found within the other collagen molecules to form
which the concentration of a genome. rigid fibers or durable sheets.
chemical differs, often across a chylomicron A large lipoprotein collecting duct The tube that receives
membrane. complex that carries lipid from the the fluid from the distal tubules of the
chemical synapse A junction between digestive tract through the nephron and empties into the minor
a neuron and another cell in which circulation to processing and target calyx of the kidney.
the signal is transmitted across the tissues. colligative properties Four properties
synapse in the form of a cilia (singular: cilium) Microtubule- of a solute that are due solely to the
neurotransmitter. based extensions from a cell that concentration of solutes, and not
chemoautotroph An organism that move in a wavelike pattern. their chemical nature.
uses inorganic chemical energy to ciliary body A part of the vertebrate colloidal osmotic pressure See oncotic
convert organic sources of carbon eye that secretes the aqueous humor. pressure.
and nitrogen into biosynthetic ciliary muscle The muscle that colon A region of the large intestine
building blocks. controls the shape of the lens of the primarily responsible for water
chemokinetic An increase in vertebrate eye; involved in producing resorption.
nondirectional movement in response a focused image. compatible solute A solute that, at
to the detection of a chemical. ciliary photoreceptors One of two high concentration, does not disrupt
chemoreceptor Used to describe either types of animal photoreceptor cells. protein structure or enzyme kinetics.
a cell containing chemoreceptive Vertebrate photoreceptors belong to competitive inhibition A mode of
proteins, or the proteins themselves. this class (see also rhabdomeric enzyme inhibition in which a
Chemicals such as hormones, photoreceptors). molecule competes with the substrate
odorants, and tastants bind circadian rhythm Regular changes in for the active site on the enzyme;
specifically to chemoreceptor gene expression, biochemistry, competitive inhibitors have the effect
proteins, altering their conformation physiology, and behavior that cycle of reducing the apparent substrate
and causing a signal within the with a period of approximately 24 affinity without affecting V .
max
chemoreceptor cell. hours. Endogenous circadian compliance A measure of the ability of
chemotaxic Movement toward higher rhythms persist even in constant a hollow structure (e.g., blood vessel,
concentrations of a chemical. darkness. lung) to stretch in response to an
chief cell The secretory cells of the circulatory system A group of organs applied pressure.
gastric epithelium that release and tissues involved in moving fluids compound eye A type of eye seen in
pepsin. through the body; consists of one or arthropods; consists of many
chitin A polymer of N-acetyl more pumping structures and a individual photoreceptive structures.
glucosamine used by arthropods to series of tubes or other spaces conduction Transfer of heat from one
construct the exoskeleton. through which fluid can move. object to another object or a fluid.
chloride cell An ion-pumping cell of citric acid cycle See tricarboxylic acid cone A type of vertebrate
fish gill epithelium (also called a cycle. photoreceptor cell (see also rod).
mitochondria-rich cell). clathrin A triskelion-shaped (three- Cones are typically responsible for
chloride shift The exchange of armed) protein that coats some types color vision in bright light.
chloride and bicarbonate across the of vesicles; vesicle formation begins conformer A strategy whereby the
erythrocyte membrane. with a clathrin-coated pit, which physicochemical properties of an
chlorocruorin A type of hemoglobin enlarges to form a clathrin-coated animal (e.g., temperature and
found in some annelids; known as vesicle. osmolarity) parallel those of the
the green hemoglobins. clearance See renal clearance. environment.
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