Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation and the Horse (McDonald Institute Monographs)

442 Pages·2004·16.14 MB·English

by  Marsha Levine

M DONALD INSTITUTE MONOGRAPHS
C
Prehistoric steppe
adaptation and the horse
Edited by Marsha Levine, Colin Renfrew &
Katie Boyle
Figures
Published by:
McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research
University of Cambridge
Downing Street
Cambridge
CB2 3ER
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ISBN: 1-902937-09-0
ISSN: 1363-1349
© 2003 McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research
All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
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recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the
McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.
Edited for the Institute by
Chris Scarre (Series Editor), Dora A. Kemp (Production Editor) and Katie Boyle (Conference Series Editor).
Cover illustration: Przewalski’s horse and a relief map of Eurasia highlighting the area of interest.
(Shaded relief map of Eurasia by Maproom44 Ltd., Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.)
Printed and bound by Short Run Press, Bittern Rd, Sowton Industrial Estate, Exeter, EX2 7LW.
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C
ONTENTS
Contributors v
Figures vii
Tables xi
Acknowledgements xii
Chapter 1 Focusing on Central Eurasian Archaeology: East Meets West 1
MARSHA LEVINE
Part I Environment and Ecology
Chapter 2 Steppe and Forest-steppe Belt of Eurasia: Holocene Environmental History 11
KONSTANTIN V. KREMENETSKI
Chapter 3 Green Grows the Steppe: How can Grassland Ecology Increase our Understanding of
Human–Plant Interactions and the Origins of Agriculture 29
MIM A. BOWER
Part II Horse Exploitation on the Eurasian Steppe
Chapter 4 Organic Residue Analysis of Lipids in Potsherds from the Early Neolithic Settlement
of Botai, Kazakhstan 45
STEPHANIE N. DUDD, RICHARD P. EVERSHED & MARSHA LEVINE
Chapter 5 Eneolithic Horse Rituals and Riding in the Steppes: New Evidence 55
DAVID W. ANTHONY & DORCUS R. BROWN
Chapter 6 Horse Exploitation in the Kazakh Steppes during the Eneolithic and Bronze Age 69
NORBERT BENECKE & ANGELA VON DEN DRIESCH
Chapter 7 The Exploitation of Horses at Botai, Kazakhstan 83
SANDRA L. OLSEN
Chapter 8 Geomorphological and Micromorphological Investigations of Palaeosols, Valley Sediments
and a Sunken-floored Dwelling at Botai, Kazakhstan 105
CHARLY FRENCH & MARIA KOUSOULAKOU
Chapter 9 A Note on the Early Evidence for Horse in Western Asia 115
JOAN OATES
Were the Donkeys at Tell Brak (Syria) Harnessed with a Bit? 126
JULIET CLUTTON-BROCK
Chapter 10 Equids in the Northern Part of the Iranian Central Plateau from the Neolithic to Iron Age:
New Zoogeographic Evidence 129
MARJAN MASHKOUR
Chapter 11 A Walk on the Wild Side: Late Shang Appropriation of Horses in China 139
KATHRYN M. LINDUFF
Chapter 12 The Horse in Late Prehistoric China: Wresting Culture and Control from the ‘Barbarians’ 163
VICTOR H. MAIR
Chapter 13 Horseback Riding: Man’s Access to Speed? 189
UTE LUISE DIETZ
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Part III Subsistence and the Origins of Pastoralism
Chapter 14 Origins of Pastoralism in the Eurasian Steppes 203
ELENA E. KUZMINA
Chapter 15 The Horse and the Wheel: the Dialectics of Change in the Circum-Pontic Region
and Adjacent Areas, 4500–1500 BC 233
ANDREW SHERRATT
Chapter 16 The Importance of Fish in the Diet of Central Eurasian Peoples from the Mesolithic
to the Early Iron Age 253
TAMSIN O’CONNELL, MARSHA LEVINE & ROBERT HEDGES
Chapter 17 Correlations between Agriculture and Pastoralism in the Northern Pontic Steppe Area
during the Bronze Age 269
KATERYNA P. BUNYATYAN
Chapter 18 Palaeoethnobotanical Evidence of Agriculture in the Steppe and the Forest-steppe
of East Europe in the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age 287
GALINA PASHKEVICH
Chapter 19 First Cattle-breeders of the Azov-Pontic Steppes 299
VOLODYMYR N. STANKO
Chapter 20 Farmers and Pastoralists of the Pontic Lowland during the Late Bronze Age 307
YAKOV P. GERSHKOVICH
Chapter 21 The Economic Peculiarities of the Srubnaya Cultural-historical Entity 319
VITALIY V. OTROSHCHENKO
Chapter 22 Srubnaya Fauna and Beyond: a Critical Assessment of the Archaezoological Information
from the East European Steppe 329
ARTURO MORALES MUÑIZ & EKATERINA ANTIPINA
Chapter 23 Yamnaya Culture Pastoral Exploitation: a Local Sequence 353
NATALIA I. SHISHLINA
Chapter 24 Problems of Inhabiting Central Eurasia: Mesolithic–Eneolithic Exploitation of the Central
Eurasian Steppes 367
GERALD MATYUSHIN
Chapter 25 The Steppes of the Urals and Kazakhstan during the Late Bronze Age 395
SVETLANA ZDANOVICH
Index COMPILED BY DORA KEMP & ALEXANDRA HEMMING 405
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ONTRIBUTORS
DAVID W. ANTHONY CHARLY FRENCH
Anthropology Department, Hartwick College, Department of Archaeology, University of
Oneonta, NY 13820, USA. Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3DZ,
Email: [email protected] UK.
Email: [email protected]
EKATERINA ANTIPINA
Laboratory of Archaeology, Academy of Sciences YAKOV P. GERSHKOVICH
of Russia, 117036 Moscow, Russia. Institute of Archaeology, Academy of Sciences of
Ukraine, Pr Geroew Stalingrada 12, 254655 Kiev -
NORBERT BENECKE 210, Ukraine.
Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Eurasien- Email: [email protected]
Abteilung, Im Dol 2-6, D-14195 Berlin.
Email: [email protected] ROBERT HEDGES
Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the
MIM A. BOWER History of Art, University of Oxford, 6 Keble Road,
Department of Archaeology, University of Oxford, OX1 3QJ, UK.
Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3DZ, Email: [email protected]
UK.
Email: [email protected] MARIA KOUSOULAKOU
Associate Member, Fitch Laboratory, British School
DORCUS R. BROWN at Athens, 52 Soudias St, Athens 106 76, Greece.
Anthropology Department, Hartwick College, Email: [email protected]
Oneonta, NY 13820, USA.
Email: [email protected] KONSTANTIN V. KREMENETSKI
Institute of Geography, Russian Academy of
KATERYNA P. BUNYATYAN Sciences, Staromonetny lane 29, Moscow 109017,
Institute of Archaeology of Ukrainian National Russia.
Academy of Sciences, Av. Geroyev Stalingrada,12, Email: [email protected]
UA-254655 Kiev-210, Ukraine.
Email: [email protected] ELENA E. KUZMINA
Academy of Science, 20 Bersenevskaya Nab.,
JULIET CLUTTON-BROCK Moscow 109072, Russia.
Department of Zoology, The Natural History Email: [email protected]
Museum, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, UK.
Email: [email protected] MARSHA LEVINE
McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research,
UTE LUISE DIETZ University of Cambridge, Downing Street,
Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Seminar für Cambridge, CB2 3ER, UK.
Ur- und Frühgeschichte, Domplatz 20-22, D-48143 Email: [email protected]
Münster, Germany.
Email: [email protected] KATHRYN M. LINDUFF
University of Pittsburgh, 104 Frick Arts Building,
STEPHANIE N. DUDD Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA.
School of Chemistry, Cantock’s Close, Bristol, BS8 Email: [email protected]
1TS, UK.
VICTOR H. MAIR
RICHARD P. EVERSHED Department of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies,
School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Suite 200, Room 209, 3701 Market Street,
Cantock’s Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS, UK. Philadelphia, PA 19104-5502, USA.
Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]
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CoFnitgriubruetsors
MARJAN MASHKOUR GALINA PASHKEVICH
CNRS/MNHN-ESA 8045 ‘Archéozoologie et Institute Archaeologii NAN Ukraine, Academy of
histoire des sociétés’, Laboratoire d’Anatomie Sciences of Ukraine, ul. Geroew Stalingrada 12,
Comprée, 55, rue Buffon, 75005 F- Paris, France. 254655 Kiev - 210, Ukraine.
Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]
GERALD MATYUSHIN† ANDREW SHERRATT
Moscow University, Building L, Apt 11, Lengory, Department of Antiquities, Ashmolean Museum,
MGU, Moscow 117234, Russia. Oxford OX1 2PH, UK.
Email: [email protected]
ARTURO MORALES MUÑIZ
Laboratorio de Arqueozoología, Universidad NATALIA I. SHISHLINA
Autónoma de Madrid, E-28049 Madrid, Spain. State Historical Museum, 1–2 Red Square, Moscow
Email: [email protected] 103012, Russia.
Email: [email protected]
JOAN OATES
McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, VOLODYMYR N. STANKO
University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Moscow University, Building L, Apt 11, Lengory,
Cambridge, CB2 3ER, UK. MGU, Moscow 117234, Russia.
Email: [email protected]
TAMSIN O’CONNELL
Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the ANGELA VON DEN DRIESCH
History of Art, University of Oxford, 6 Keble Road, Institut für Paläoanatomie und Geschichte der
Oxford, OX1 3QJ, UK. Tiermedizin, Kaulbachstraße 37, D-80539 Münich,
Email: [email protected] Germany.
Email: [email protected]
SANDRA L. OLSEN
Associate Curator, Section of Anthropology, SVETLANA ZDANOVICH
Carnegie Museum of Natural History, 5800 Baum ‘Arkaim’ Centre, General Post-Office P/O 283,
Blvd, Pittsburgh, PA 15206-3706, USA. Cheliabinsk 454899, Russia.
Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]
VITALIY V. OTROSHCHENKO
Institute of Archaeology of Urkainian National
Academy of Sciences, Av. Geroyev Stalingrada, 12,
UA-04655 Kiev-210, Ukraine.
Email: [email protected]
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Figures
Figures
1.1. Dereivka age structure. 2
1.2. Botai age structure. 2
1.3. Age structure of a modern Kazakh horse herd. 3
1.4. Pooled Palaeolithic sites age distribution. 3
2.1. Location of the Black Sea–Kazakhstan steppe region. 12
2.2. Orgeev. Percentage pollen diagram plotted against calibrated age. 13
2.3. Kardashinskoe. Percentage pollen diagram plotted against calibrated age. 14
2.4. Percentage pollen diagram of Razdorskoe settlement. 16
2.5. Lipigi. Percentage pollen diagram plotted against calibrated age. 18
2.6. Buzuluk. Percentage terrestrial pollen diagram plotted against calibrated age. 19
2.7. Mokhovoe. Percentage pollen diagram plotted against calibrated age. 20
2.8. Pashennoe. Percentage pollen diagram plotted against calibrated age. 21
2.9. Ozerki. Percentage terrestrial pollen diagram plotted against calibrated age. 22
2.10. Human impact on pine Pinus sylvestris L. forests in the steppe belt at the Bronze Age 24
3.1. A breckland type ruderal weed community. 30
3.2. The grassland ecotope which covers a large part of the Eurasian continent. 31
3.3. The modern-day spread of wild cereals within the grassland ecotope is limited. 32
3.4. Human–plant interactions include cultivation and domestication. 33
3.5. Human interaction with the environment mapped in terms of changes in tree species. 38
4.1. Location map showing the Eneolithic settlement of Botai, Kokchetau Oblast in northern Kazakhstan. 45
4.2. Site plan of Botai. 46
4.3. Plan of the polygonal ‘dwellings’ excavated at Botai. 47
4.4. Graph showing the age stucture of the horses from Botai. 48
4.5. Examples of typical ceramic vessel forms and decorations. 48
4.6. Location of the excavations from which the sherds were recovered. 49
4.7. Partial high temperature gas chromatogram of the total lipid extract from potsherd N26. 50
4.8. Carbon number distributions of triacylglycerols in total lipid extracts of Eneolithic potsherds. 50
5.1. Late Neolithic and Eneolithic sites in the steppes. 59
5.2. The Khvalynsk I cemetery with above-grave ritual deposits. 60
5.3. Graves 91 and 90, covered by Ritual Deposit 4, with cattle, sheep, and horse bones. 61
5.4. Horse figurines made from carved bone, dated 5200–4500 BC. 62
5.5. Wear facets or bevels on the mesial (front) edge of horse second lower premolars. 64
5.6. The effects of horseback riding on American Indian cultures in the North American plains. 65
6.1. Floor plain of the chariot grave at Krivoe Ozero. 69
6.2. Composition of selected faunal assemblages from North and Central Kazakhstan. 73
6.3. Skeletal element representation of the horse bone assemblages from two sites of Botai. 74
6.4. Age structure of the Botai horses according to epiphyseal fusion of postcranial elements on sites 32 and 33. 75
6.5. Age structure of the Botai horses from the sites 31–3 according to tooth wear on the incisors. 75
6.6. Sex ratio of the Botai horses (sites 31–3) and the Krasnyi Yar horses identified on jaw bones and pelves. 76
6.7. Size comparison between horses from Central Europe, East Europe and North Kazakhstan. 77
6.8. Size comparison between Eneolithic–Early Bronze Age horses and Middle–Late Bronze Age horses. 80
7.1. Map of Kazakhstan locating Botai culture sites. 83
7.2. Midden excavated at the site of Botai containing large quantities of horse remains. 84
7.3. Wound in horse rib showing a) entry and b) opposite side with deformation and fracture of the bone. 85
7.4. Horse cranium with circular depressed fracture in maxilla, possibly from pole-axing. 86
7.5. Articulated thoracic vertebrae in situ in midden at Botai. 87
7.6. Locations of cut-marks on Botai horse. Fore and hind metapodials and phalanges are combined here. 88
7.7. Locations of chopping-marks on Botai horse. Fore and hind metapodials and phalanges are combined here. 89
7.8. Major marrow-yielding bones. 90
7.9. Sectioned bones with no indication of impact or chopping-marks. 91
7.10. a) Incised proximal phalanx; b) bone harpoon. 91
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Figures
7.11. Artefact raw materials at Botai. Fore and hind metapodials and phalanges are combined here. 92
7.12. Harpoons with tip damage and shaft fractures. 93
7.13. Thong-smoother made on a horse mandible. Arrow shows where use polish was located. 93
7.14. Scanning electron photographs of thong-smoother. 94
7.15. Dog burial in extramural pit outside House 139 with cache of horse bones on the west side. 99
7.16. Dog skull resting on horse skull in midden. 100
8.1. Location map of Botai in Kazakhstan. 105
8.2. General plan of the Eneolithic settlement at Botai. 106
8.3. Cross-section of excavation site 32 through the sunken-floored dwelling. 108
8.4. Excremental/pellety fabric indicative of turf (plane-polarized light: frame width = 4.5 mm) 109
8.5. B horizon fabric containing abundant illuvial clay and silty clay indicative of brown soil development. 109
8.6. Micritic, very fine sandy clay loam fabric exhibiting fine planar voids in horizontal orientation. 111
8.7. Degraded plant and bone remains, partially replaced by amorphous iron in phosphatized fabric. 113
9.1. Seal impression rolled on a large jar shoulder, depicting a four-wheeled vehicle drawn by four equids. 115
9.2. Seal impressions from Tell Brak (ancient Nagar) and nearby Tell Beydar (Nabada). 116
9.3. Early Akkadian seal impression depicting an equid with rider. 118
9.4. Modern impression of serpentine cylinder seal showing a ‘contest scene’. 118
9.5. Sealing on tablets of SÙu-Sin (2037–2039 BC) from Ur, showing a rider astride (?) an equid. 118
9.6. a) Donkey and rider figurine, Tell Selenkahiye (Syria). b) Seal impression from Kültepe Karum II. 119
9.7. Early second-millennium clay plaque showing a horse, identified by his mane and tail. 119
9.8. Detail from a seal impression from Kültepe (Karum Kanesh II, c. 1950–1850 BC). 121
9.9. Detail from a seal impression from Kültepe, eighteenth/seventeenth century BC, perhaps a hunting scene. 121
9.10. a) Detail of stone relief of Assur-nasir-pal II from Nimrud; b) seventh-century BC Assurbanipal relief. 122
9.11. Notching on the incisor teeth, probably caused by chewing wood. 126
9.12. Bony outgrowths on the top of the neural spines probably caused by heavy loading on the spine. 126
9.13. Unnatural wear on the first upper right cheek tooth (premolar 2). 127
9.14. Three views of the lower right second premolar to show the green staining in the tooth. 127
10.1. Geographical location of Qazvin Plain prehistoric sites marked by black squares. 130
10.2. Scatter diagram for upper cheek teeth. 132
10.3. Scatter diagram for Humerus. 134
10.4. Scatter diagram for Calcaneus. 134
10.5. Log Ratio Diagram for third Metacarpal. 135
11.1. Jade horses from the Tomb of Lady Hao at Yinxu, Anyang, Henan province. 139
11.2. Bronzes from M1, Jingjiecun, Shanxi province. 139
11.3. Chariot burial of Tomb 175, Dasikong, Anyang, Henan province. 140
11.4. Bronze objects associated with horses in burials. 141
11.5. Distribution of horse remains in Neolithic China (4000–1500 BC). 144
11.6. Copper objects from the Qijia culture. 146
11.7. Metal earrings from China and Siberia. 146
11.8. Bronze ornaments, Siba culture, from Huoshaogou, Yumen, Gansu. 146
11.9. Bronze spatulas (bishou), Siba culture, from Huoshaogou, Yumen, Gansu. 147
11.10. Distribution of Chinese sites of late Shang date (c. 1250–1050 BC) with evidence of horses. 149
11.11. Sites with horse remains in Anyang, late Shang period. 153
11.12. Bronze tools and weapons, Siba culture, from Huoshaogou, Yumen, Gansu. 154
11.13. Bronzes of Northern Zone-type unearthed from the Fuhao tomb and their northern counterparts. 154
12.1. Map showing archaeological sites in China mentioned in the text. 167
12.2. Magnificent, exquisitely wrought bronze halberd showing a bearded, tattooed, cattle-herding Europoid. 169
12.3. The first evidence for horseback riding in East Asia. 170
12.4. a) Use of the horse-drawn chariot for hunting; b) ancient horseriding hunters in Southwest Asia. 171
12.5. Bronze and a gold belt buckle showing mounted warriors on the borders of China in the Western Han. 171
12.6. Bronze plaque showing a cavalryman with sword drawn against an enemy. Xichagou. 172
12.7. Horseriding in the heartland of China. Scene on a bronze mirror found at Loyang 172
12.8. The first concrete evidence for spoked wheels in East Asia. 173
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