Precision Surveying: The Principles and Geomatics Practice

714 Pages·2015·16.4 MB·English

by  John Olusegun Ogundare

Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
About The Author
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Precision Survey Properties and Techniques
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Basic Classification of Precision Surveys
1.3 Precision Geodetic Survey Techniques
1.4 Review of Some Safety Issues
Chapter 2: Observables, Measuring Instruments, and Theory of Observation Errors
2.1 Observables, Measurements and Measuring Instruments
2.2 Angle and Direction Measuring Instruments
2.3 Elevation Difference Measuring Instrument
2.4 Distance Measuring Instrument
2.5 Accuracy Limitations of Modern Survey Instruments
2.6 Error Properties of Measurements
2.7 Precision and Accuracy Indicators
2.8 Systematic Error and Random Error Propagation Laws
2.9 Statistical Test of Hypotheses: The Tools for Data Analysis
2.10 Need for Equipment Calibration and Testing
Chapter 3: Standards and Specifications For Precision Surveys
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Standards and the Concept of Confidence Regions
3.3 Standards for Traditional Vertical Control Surveys
3.4 Standards for Horizontal Control Surveys
3.5 Unified Standards for Positional Accuracy
3.6 Map and Geospatial Data Accuracy Standards
3.7 Quality and Standards
Chapter 4: Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Angle Measurement System
4.1 Sources of Errors in Angle Measurements
4.2 Systematic Errors Eliminated by Measurement Process
4.3 Systematic Errors Eliminated by Adjustment Process
4.4 Summary of Systematic Error Elimination
4.5 Random Error Estimation
4.6 Testing Procedure for Precision Theodolites
Chapter 5: Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Distance Measurement System
5.1 Introduction
5.2 General Properties of Waves
5.3 Application of EM Waves to EDM
5.4 EDM Instrumental Errors
5.5 EDM External Errors
5.6 Random Error Propagation of EDM Distance Measurement
5.7 Calibration and Testing Procedures for EDM Instruments
Chapter 6: Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Elevation and Coordinate difference
Measurement Systems
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Pointing Error
6.3 Reading/Rod Plumbing Error
6.4 Leveling Error
6.5 Collimation, Rod Scale, and ROD Index Errors
6.6 Effects of Vertical Atmospheric Refraction and Earth Curvature
6.7 Random Error Propagation for Elevation Difference Measurements
6.8 Testing Procedures for Leveling Equipment
6.9 Calibration of Coordinate Difference Measurement System (GNSS EQUIPMENT)
Chapter 7: Survey Design and Analysis
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Network Design
7.3 Solution Approaches to Design Problems
7.4 Network Adjustment and Analysis
7.5 Angular Measurement Design Example
7.6 Distance Measurement Design Example
7.7 Traverse Measurement Design Examples
7.8 Elevation Difference Measurement Design Example
Chapter 8: Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Coordinate System for Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems
8.3 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Global Navigation Satellite System
8.4 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Electronic Theodolites
8.5 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Laser Systems
Chapter 9: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geodetic Techniques
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Geodetic Deformation Monitoring Schemes and The Design Approach
9.3 Monumentation and Targeting
9.4 Horizontal Deformation Monitoring and Analysis
9.5 Vertical Deformation Monitoring and Analysis
Chapter 10: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: High-Definition Survey and Remote
Sensing Techniques
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Laser Systems
10.3 Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Technologies
10.4 Comparison of Laser (LDAR) and Radar (ISAR) Technologies
Chapter 11: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geotechnical and Structural Techniques
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Overview of Geotechnical and Structural Instrumentation
11.3 Design of Geotechnical and Structural Monitoring Schemes
11.4 Analysis of Geotechnical Measurements
11.5 Integrated Deformation Monitoring System
Chapter 12: Mining Surveying
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Mining Terminology
12.3 Horizontal Mine Orientation Surveys
12.4 Transferring Levels or Heights Underground
12.5 Volume Determination in Mines
Chapter 13: Tunneling Surveys
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Basic Elements and Methods of Tunneling Surveys
13.3 Main Sources of Error in Tunneling Surveys
13.4 Horizontal Design and Simulation of Tunneling Surveys
13.5 Vertical Design and Simulation of Tunneling Surveys
13.6 Numerical Example: Horizontal Breakthrough Analysis
13.7 Examples of Tunneling Surveys
13.8 Analysis of Underground Traverse Surveys
Chapter 14: Precision Alignment Surveys
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Direct Laser Alignment Technique
14.3 Conventional Surveying Techniques of Alignment
14.4 Optical-Tooling Techniques
14.5 Metrology by Laser Interferometer Systems
14.6 Alignment by Polar Measurement Systems
14.7 Main Sources of Error in Alignment Surveys
Appendix I: Extracts From Baarda'S Nomogram
Appendix II: Commonly Used Statistical Tables
Appendix III: Tau Distribution Table for Significance Level α
Appendix IV: Important Units
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2: Observables, Measuring Instruments, and Theory of Observation Errors
Figure 2.1 Angle measurement scheme in face left (FL) and face right (FR) positions of
the telescope.
Figure 2.2 A typical error ellipse.
Figure 2.3 Relative error ellipse between points 1 and 2.
Chapter 3: Standards and Specifications For Precision Surveys
Figure 3.1 Sample leveling network.
Figure 3.2 Indirect distance measurement.
Figure 3.3 Local accuracy between control points.
Figure 3.4 Network accuracy between a control point and a datum.
Chapter 4: Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Angle Measurement System
Figure 4.1 Relationship among the axes of a theodolite.
Figure 4.2 An illustration of a horizontal collimation error and its effect on angle
measurement.
Figure 4.3 An illustration of a vertical collimation error of a theodolite.
Figure 4.4 An illustration of tilting axis error of a theodolite.
Figure 4.5 Extending a straight line by double-centering method.
Figure 4.6 Typical plate bubble vial.
Figure 4.7 Refracted and expected wave propagation paths.
Figure 4.8 Representation of a horizontal angle (θ) between survey points.
Figure 4.9 Error in direction measurement due to target miscentering.
Figure 4.10 Effect of instrument miscentering on angle measurement.
Figure 4.11 Example of a looped traverse survey.
Figure 4.12 Test field for horizontal angle measurements showing the position P of
theodolite and the arrangement of targets 1–4 (with subscript t representing set number
and subscript s representing series number).
Figure 4.13 Test field for zenith angle measurements (with subscript s representing
series number) showing the position P of the theodolite and the invar rod targets 1–3.
Chapter 5: Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Distance Measurement System
Figure 5.1 Familiar circular water waves.
Figure 5.2 General properties of electromagnetic (EM) waves.
Figure 5.3 Electromagnetic (EM) wave propagation in space (E is the direction of
electric field; B is the direction of magnetic field).
Figure 5.4 A portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Figure 5.5 EDM phase measurement technique.
Figure 5.6 Resolving ambiguities in EDM measurements.
Figure 5.7 Baseline measurements with two different EDM instruments.
Figure 5.8 Baselines and measuring arrangement for EDM calibration.
Figure 5.9 Approximate approach of EDM system constant determination.
Figure 5.10 Determination of EDM system constant.
Chapter 6: Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Elevation and Coordinate difference
Measurement Systems
Figure 6.1 Relationship between nonverticality of level rod and rod readings.
Figure 6.2 Relationship between instrument leveling error and rod readings.
Figure 6.3 A typical setup of level on a test line.
Chapter 7: Survey Design and Analysis
Figure 7.1 A simple surveying problem.
Figure 7.2 A typical direction measurement to a target.
Figure 7.3 A sketch of a traverse around a rectangular city block.
Chapter 8: Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems
Figure 8.1 Representation of local geodetic (LG) coordinate system.
Figure 8.2 Three-dimensional intersection problem.
Figure 8.3 Relationship between a plane and a level surface.
Figure 8.4 Example of three-dimensional traverse survey.
Figure 8.5 Coordinate system of a terrestrial laser scanner.
Chapter 9: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geodetic Techniques
Figure 9.1 Typical reference control pillar (showing extensometer anchor) for geodetic
monitoring: (a) GPS unit setup, (b) top of survey pillar, and (c) whole length of survey
pillar.
Figure 9.2 Typical dam monitoring instrument pillar design.
Figure 9.3 (a) Two monitoring pillars (Monitor 1 and Monitor 2) for stability test of
another pillar (control pillar). (b) A monitoring pillar with a survey marker (e.g.,
Monitor 1).
Figure 9.4 A typical dam crest monument installation.
Figure 9.5 Typical leveling markers used in subsidence monitoring surveys.
Figure 9.6 Geodetic grade GPS unit setup to monitor subsidence-induced horizontal
displacements in a mining area: GPS unit setup on a (a) tripod over a monitoring point
and (b) high-precision pillar.
Figure 9.7 Simple total station subnetwork traverse controlled by GPS control points
C , C , and C in three-baseline surveys.
1 2 3
Figure 9.8 Main features of a typical hydroelectric generating station. Source:
Background image is reproduced by permission of NB Power.
Figure 9.9 Simulated deformation monitoring scheme.
Figure 9.10 External minimally constrained displacements with point A and azimuth A-
B held fixed (error ellipses at 95% confidence level).
Figure 9.11 Displacement field after IWST (error ellipses at 95% confidence level).
Figure 9.12 Typical trilateration network for deformation monitoring of an
hydroelectric dam (not to scale). Source: Background image is reproduced by
permission of NB Power.
Figure 9.13 (a) GPS unit installed eccentrically from a geodetic pillar on the Intake
structure of a generating station. (b) GPS unit installed on the crest of the gravity
dam/diversion sluiceway structure of a generating station.
Figure 9.14 Three-baseline GPS survey method.
Figure 9.15 Tilted and inclined surfaces.
Figure 9.16 Subsidence bowl.
Figure 9.17 Integrated leveling surveys for tilt and vertical expansion determination.
Chapter 10: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: High-Definition Survey and Remote
Sensing Techniques
Figure 10.1 Propagation of laser beam.
Figure 10.2 Radar system operating from a satellite.
Figure 10.3 Basic geometry of SAR interferometry for topographic height
determination.
Figure 10.4 Basic geometry of SAR interferometry for displacement determination.
Figure 10.5 Possible interferogram showing three fringes of modeled uplift.
Figure 10.6 Typical InSAR complex image of a scene.
Figure 10.7 Typical InSAR interferogram of a scene.
Figure 10.8 Typical artificial corner reflector.
Chapter 11: Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geotechnical and Structural Techniques
Figure 11.1 Two mechanical devices for reading rod extensometers.
Figure 11.2 Sketch of a single-point rod extensometer.
Figure 11.3 (a) Reference head for a six-point rod extensometer installation with depth
micrometer in one of the reference points. (b) A six-point rod extensometer assembly
with depth micrometer in one of the reference points for illustration. (c) A sketch of
six-point rod extensometer installation.
Figure 11.4 (a) Borehole rod extensometer equipped with LVDT sensors for automatic
monitoring of rod extensometers. (b) Centralized LVDT readout system for automatic
measurements of LVDT installations at different locations.
Figure 11.5 (a) Arrangement of suspended pendulum and invar rod extensometer. (b)
Micrometer measurement of relative vertical displacement between the extensometer
anchor point and the bracket grouted to the wall in the Intake structure.
Figure 11.6 Invar rod extensometer installation with the measuring heads (with
micrometer measurements usually taken between the two heads).
Figure 11.7 Measuring the change in the joint on an Intake structure of a hydroelectric
generating station using invar rod micrometer gauge.
Figure 11.8 (a) Tape extensometer measurement between two wall anchor points. (b)
Tape extensometer measurement between the upstream and downstream columns
(anchor point on end side of one column is shown) in a Powerhouse.
Figure 11.9 Four-pin gauge for displacement measurement. (a) Four-pin monitoring
points. (b) Four-pin vertical movement measurement. (c) Four-pin joint measurement
across points P and P .
4 3
Figure 11.10 (a) Joint meter mounted over a joint with vertical reading taken with a
micrometer gauge. (b) Joint meter mounted over a joint with the horizontal reading
taken with a micrometer gauge.
Figure 11.11 A weighted plumbline system to measure the inclination of a column.
Figure 11.12 (a) Typical measurement location of stairwell plumbline in a
Powerhouse. (b) Typical measurement location of hoist well plumbline in a
Powerhouse.
Figure 11.13 (a) A schematic diagram of a weighted plumbline installation. (b)
Horizontal displacement of point P with respect to point Q.
Figure 11.14 Reading the x- and y-displacement of a weighted plumbline.
Figure 11.15 An inverted plumbline installation in a Powerhouse of a dam.
Figure 11.16 A plumbline tank containing a float and liquid.
Figure 11.17 (a) A schematic diagram of inverted plumbline installation. (b)
Displacement of point Q with respect to point P.
Figure 11.18 Inverted plumbline installations in one of the galleries of the Intake
structure of a generating station (with brackets bolted to concrete wall).
Figure 11.19 Roctest RxTx telependulum device interfaced with a computer for reading
relative position of an inverted pendulum wire.
Figure 11.20 A shuttle probe being lowered into a borehole guiding tube.
Figure 11.22 Typical shuttle probes in borehole casings.
Figure 11.23 Typical MEMS Tilt Meters by RST Instruments Ltd.
Figure 11.24 Operational principle of fiber Bragg grating (FBG).
Figure 11.25 Anatomy of an SAA, showing the placement of X-mark, label, and eyelet
on the SAA tubing.
Figure 11.26 SAA placed on a reel for storage.
Figure 11.27 Simulation of tunnel deformations with an SAA, and the corresponding
real-time display of the deformations (in white outline) on a laptop computer.
Figure 11.28 Schematic representation of a typical SAA string installation.
Figure 11.29 Determination of azimuth and dip at the collar of a borehole.
Figure 11.30 (a) Invar rod micrometers and the typical vertical and horizontal
calibration benches installed in a Powerhouse of a hydroelectric generating station. (b)
Horizontal calibration bench for tape extensometer calibration.
Figure 11.31 Sample display of 1989–2013 displacements from six-point borehole
extensometer installed in a single borehole.
Figure 11.32 Sample display of 1985–2013 tape extensometer measurements between
two pairs of columns in a Powerhouse.
Figure 11.33 Sample display of 1984–2014 Joint meter measurements for three units of
a Powerhouse.
Figure 11.34 Sample display of inverted pendulum X-movements profiles from 2011 to
2013 based on shuttle probe measurements with July 2011 measurements as baseline.
Figure 11.35 Sample display of inverted pendulum Y-movements profiles from 2011 to
2013 based on shuttle probe measurements with July 2011 measurements as baseline.
Chapter 12: Mining Surveying
Figure 12.1 A cross section of a mine illustrating some mining terms.
Figure 12.2 Different mining orientation techniques.
Figure 12.3 Transferring surface alignment underground (cross-sectional view).
Figure 12.4 Weisbach triangle (plan view).
Figure 12.5 Plan view of Weisbach triangle (surface part).
Figure 12.6 Plan view of Weisbach triangle (underground part).
Figure 12.7 Quadrilateral method (plan view).
Figure 12.8 Example on quadrilateral method (plan view).
Figure 12.9 GP-1 gyro unit mounted on Set3X total station.
Figure 12.10 Gyro station eyepiece showing the gyro mark in the V shape.
Figure 12.11 Time method of gyro azimuth determination.
Figure 12.12 Setup procedure of the GP3X Gyro station.
Figure 12.13 Sample display for the follow-up and Time methods of gyro
measurements.