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Pre-Hospital Anesthesia Handbook PDF

147 Pages·2010·1.558 MB·English
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Pre-Hospital Anesthesia Handbook Andrew Griffiths Tim Lowes Jeremy Henning Pre-Hospital Anesthesia Handbook Lt Col Andrew Griffiths, MBBS Lt Col Jeremy Henning, MBBS BMed Sci FRCA RAMC FRCA RAMC Consultant in Anaesthesia Consultant in Anaesthesia & ICU 16 Close Support Medical Ministry of Defence Hospital Regiment/ James Cook Unit Northallerton/ James Cook University Hospital/GNAAS UK University Hospital Clinical Director Great North Lt Col Tim Lowes, MBBS Air Ambulance Service UK FRCA Dip IMC.RCS(Ed) RAMC Consultant in Anaesthesia & ICU 16 Close Support Medical Regiment/ James Cook University Hospital/GNAAS UK ISBN: 978-1-84996-158-5 e-ISBN: 978-1-84996-159-2 DOI 10.1007/978-1-84996-159-2 Springer London Dordrecht Heidelberg New York British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Control Number: 2010928390 © Springer-Verlag London Limited 2010 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publish- ers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licenses issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. The use of registered names, trademarks, etc., in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Product liability: The publisher can give no guarantee for information about drug dosage and application thereof contained in this book. In every indi- vidual case the respective user must check its accuracy by consulting other pharmaceutical literature. Cover design: eStudioCalamar, Figueres/Berlin Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Foreword The dramatic changes in the management of critically ill or injured patients in the pre-hospital environment that follow the implementation of lessons learnt in austere distant zones precede the publication of focused, evidence-based guides and manuals. This manual is therefore a great step forwards in training and assessment. The commitment expressed in the Darzi report (High Quality Care for All – NHS Next Stage Review Final Report 2008) to provide the best care for all patients does mean that there will be occasions when primary resuscitation of patients is followed by a more prolonged transfer to definitive care. The opportuni- ties to start and continue critical care of seriously ill patients by skilled anesthetists should provide the same benefits for civilian populations as has been demonstrated in hostile operations; a clear message from the Healthcare Commission (2009). The authors are all experts in both the practical clinical application and the academic and research aspects of pre- hospital care. This manual covers the most important aspects of anesthesia and rightly concentrates on the safe and rapid establishment of a secure airway as part of the ongoing care of the patient. The techniques for rapid sequence induction of anesthesia are discussed and just as importantly so are the necessary subsequent anesthesia and sedation techniques. This manual should be essential reading for all involved in the pre-hospital arena from paramedical to medical staff. It is a model for others to follow and it is a privilege to be asked to write this foreword. Prof. Chris Dodds JCUH v Preface Over the past few years in the United Kingdom there have been many reports into trauma which have highlighted poor pre-hospital care as a major cause of possibly preventable deaths. Similar issues have been identified internationally. Many pre-hospital systems have therefore developed stan- dard operating procedures that involve inducing anesthesia for airway control. Many physician providers find it difficult to access training in this area, and assisting anesthesia is outside most paramedics’ curriculum. This was a problem we faced at the Great North Air Ambulance Service. To address this, we developed a two day course to provide an introduction to pre-hospital anesthetic practice. This book has evolved from the manual we wrote for the course, which we continue to run three times a year. It is clear that pre-hospital anesthesia remains a controver- sial procedure, with many conflicting papers written about its benefits and risks. For this reason, anyone undertaking it has a duty to ensure they undertake it safely and within a well governed system. A book cannot provide clinical experience, however, we hope that it will give a good knowledge-base to guide and develop practice. The available evidence is discussed, relevant pharmacology is explained and a system to provide pre-hospital anesthesia is presented. We hope this book will prove to be an enjoyable read that will encourage many to develop their pre-hospital anesthetic practice. It has to be the hope of all working in this world that no patient ever dies from having inadequate airway control before their admission to hospital. vii viii Preface The authors acknowledge the support that the Great North Air Ambulance Service has given in the evolution of the course, and are donating all of their royalties from the sales of this book to the charity fund. Middlesbrough, UK Andy Griffiths Tim Lowes Jeremy Henning Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Pre-Hospital Anesthesia (PHA)............ 1 1.2 Rapid Sequence Intubation................ 2 1.2.1 Who Should Perform RSI? ......... 3 1.3 Pre-Hospital Rapid Sequence Intubation (PRSI)........................ 5 1.3.1 The Pre-Hospital Environment...... 5 1.3.2 The Evidence for PRSI ............ 5 1.3.3 Who Should Perform PRSI?........ 7 1.4 Confidential Enquiry into Peri-Operative Deaths (NCEPOD): Trauma – Who Cares? .. 9 References ................................... 10 2 Indications and Decision Making ................ 13 2.1 Significance of Aspiration ................. 14 2.1.1 Incidence, Morbidity and Mortality of Aspiration ............ 15 2.2 LMA vs. Endotracheal Tube ............... 16 2.3 Summary ............................... 17 2.4 Assessment of Need: Risk vs. Benefit........ 17 2.4.1 Factors to Consider (The A B C D Approach) .......... 18 References ................................... 21 3 Pre-Hospital Rapid Sequence Intubation ......... 23 3.1 The Six P’s .............................. 23 3.2 Preoxygenation.......................... 24 ix x Contents 3.3 Preparation ............................. 26 3.3.1 Preassessment .................... 27 3.3.2 Prepare Equipment and Drugs...... 36 3.3.3 Positioning....................... 39 3.3.4 Protection........................ 41 3.4 Premedication........................... 47 3.5 Paralyze and Sedate ...................... 47 3.6 Passage of Tube.......................... 49 3.6.1 Laryngoscope .................... 50 3.6.2 Bougie .......................... 50 3.6.3 Plan A and Plan B................. 54 3.6.4 Failed Intubation Drill (Appendix “Failed Intubation Protocol”)....... 55 3.7 Post Intubation .......................... 55 3.7.1 Confirmation of Placement ......... 55 3.7.2 Capnography..................... 56 3.7.3 Colorimetric Capnometer .......... 56 References ................................... 57 4 Post-intubation Management.................... 61 4.1 A (and c-Spine) BCDE Approach .......... 62 4.1.1 Airway .......................... 62 4.1.2 Cervical Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 4.1.3 Breathing........................ 65 4.1.4 Over Ventilation or Fall in Cardiac Output ............. 66 4.1.5 Circulation....................... 68 4.1.6 Disability ........................ 70 4.1.7 Exposure and Packaging ........... 71 4.1.8 Handover and Documentation...... 72 References ................................... 73 5 Equipment and Minimum Monitoring Standards... 75 5.1 Monitoring.............................. 75 5.2 Equipment.............................. 76 5.3 Ventilators .............................. 77 5.3.1 How to set a ventilator............. 79 References ................................... 81 Contents xi 6 Drugs and Sedation............................ 83 6.1 Pre-Treatment........................... 83 6.1.1 Fentanyl ......................... 84 6.1.2 Alfentanil........................ 85 6.1.3 Atropine......................... 85 6.2 Induction Agents......................... 85 6.2.1 Etomidate ....................... 87 6.2.2 Ketamine ........................ 87 6.3 Muscle Relaxants ........................ 88 6.3.1 Suxamethonium .................. 89 6.3.2 Pancuronium..................... 90 6.3.3 Atracurium ...................... 90 6.3.4 Vecuronium...................... 91 6.3.5 Rocuronium...................... 91 6.4 Sedation................................ 91 6.4.1 Midazolam....................... 94 6.4.2 Morphine........................ 94 6.4.3 Propofol (2,6-Diisopropylphenol) ... 95 6.5 Analgesia............................... 96 6.5.1 Morphine........................ 96 6.5.2 Fentanyl ......................... 96 6.5.3 Entonox ......................... 96 6.5.4 Ketamine ........................ 97 6.5.5 Local Anesthesia (Appendix “Local Anesthetic Blocks”)......... 97 6.6 Cardiovascular Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 6.6.1 Adrenaline....................... 98 6.6.2 Ephedrine ....................... 99 References ................................... 99 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 7 Special Circumstances.......................... 101 7.1 Hypothermia............................ 101 7.2 Pediatrics ............................... 102 7.3 Obstetrics............................... 104 7.3.1 Airway .......................... 105 7.3.2 Breathing........................ 105 7.3.3 Circulation....................... 106 xii Contents 7.3.4 Disability ........................ 107 7.3.5 Obstetric Referral................. 107 7.4 Head Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 7.5 Transferring Ventilated Patients by Air . . . . . . 109 7.5.1 Altitude ......................... 109 7.5.2 Temperature ..................... 109 7.5.3 Acceleration/Deceleration ......... 109 7.5.4 Vibration ........................ 110 7.5.5 Noise............................ 111 References ................................... 111 8 Complications and Adverse Events............... 113 8.1 Complications ........................... 113 8.1.1 Immediate Complications .......... 113 8.1.2 Early Complications............... 114 8.1.3 Late Complications................ 115 8.2 Adverse Events.......................... 116 8.2.1 Hypoxia (Low SpO) .............. 116 2 8.2.2 Hypotension ..................... 118 References ................................... 119 Appendices...................................... 121 Index ........................................... 139

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