Practical Implications of Current Intimate Partner Violence Research for Victim Advocates and ...

260 Pages·2013·4.09 MB·English

The author(s) shown below used Federal funds provided by the U.S.
Department of Justice and prepared the following final report:

Document Title: Practical Implications of Current Intimate
Partner Violence Research for Victim Advocates
and Service Providers

Author(s): Barbara J. Hart, J.D., Andrew R. Klein, Ph.D.

Document No.: 244348

Date Received: December 2013

Award Number: 2010M_10065

This report has not been published by the U.S. Department of Justice.
To provide better customer service, NCJRS has made this Federally-
funded grant report available electronically.

Opinions or points of view expressed are those
of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect

the official position or policies of the U.S.

Department of Justice.
Practical Implications of Current Intimate
Partner Violence Research for Victim Advocates
and Service Providers

Barbara J. Hart, J.D.
Andrew R. Klein, Ph.D.

January 9, 2013

Findings and conclusions of the research reported here are those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect the official position of policies of the U.S. Department of Justice or
Health and Human Services.
This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not
been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
Practical Implications of Current Intimate Partner Violence Research
for Victim Advocates and Service Providers

Table of Contents

Introduction: How to Use this Guide ..................................................... 8

I. What is Intimate Partner Violence? ................................................. 11
Why Does IPV Occur? .......................................................................... 12
How Should IPV be Measured? ........................................................... 13
Are Coercive and Controlling Behaviors Linked to IPV? ................. 14
Are Sexual Abuse and Rape Part of IPV? ........................................... 15
Is “Reproductive Coercion” Part of IPV? ........................................... 18
Is Stalking Part of IPV? ........................................................................ 19
Is Economic Abuse Part of IPV? .......................................................... 20
How Can IPV Economic Abuse be Measured?................................... 21
Is Isolation Part of IPV? ........................................................................ 22
Are Men and Women Equally Likely to Be Victims or
Perpetrators of IPV? ...................................................................... 23
Is Women’s Use of IPV Different from Men’s? .................................. 24

II. What Are the Victimization Rates for Intimate Partner
Violence? .......................................................................................... 26
Are Certain Populations at Increased Risk for IPV? ......................... 28
Are Separated or Divorced Persons at Higher Risk for IPV?........... 29
Are Pregnant Women at Increased Risk for IPV? ............................. 30
Are Women with Disabilities at Increased Risk for IPV? ................. 31
Are Women who are Deaf at Increased Risk for IPV? ...................... 33
Are Rural Women at Increased Risk for IPV? ................................... 34
Are Elders at Increased Risk for IPV? ................................................ 35
Are Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual or Trangender People at Increased
Risk for IPV? ................................................................................... 36
Are IPV Rates Higher among Veterans and Active Duty Military? 39
How Many Children are exposed to IPV? ........................................... 39
How Many IPV Victims are Killed Each Year? ................................. 41
How Many IPV Victims Attempt/Complete Suicide? ........................ 43

III. What is the Impact of IPV on Victims? ........................................ 46
What are the Costs of IPV? .................................................................. 46
What is the Impact of IPV on Victim Health? .................................... 48
1

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not
been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
What is the Health Impact of IPV on Victim Mental Health? .......... 50
Is the Health Impact of IPV Different for Men than Women? ......... 51
Why May the Adverse Mental and Physical Health Effects of IPV
Remain Long after the Abuse Has Ended? ......................................... 52
What Are the Special Risks of IPV against Pregnant Women? ........ 53
What is the Relationship between Abuse during Pregnancy and Post-
Partum Depression? .............................................................................. 54
Can Prenatal Exposure to IPV Adversely Affect the Health of the
Child? ...................................................................................................... 54
Is There a Link Between Abortions and IPV? .................................... 55
Are Abused Women at Special Risk for HIV Infection? .................. 56
What are the Effects of Economic Abuse? .......................................... 57
Does IPV Contribute to Homelessness? ............................................... 58
What is the Impact on Children Who are Exposed to IPV? ............. 60
Does Exposure to IPV Increase Likelihood that a Child Will Become
Involved with IPV as an Adult? ........................................................... 63
Are Children Exposed to IPV More Likely to Suffer Child Abuse? 64
Is Abnormal Sexual Behavior by Children Linked to Exposure
to IPV? .................................................................................................. 65
How Can the Impact of Child IPV Exposure Be Measured? ............ 66

IV. Who Abuses? .................................................................................... 67
What Age are Abusers? ......................................................................... 67
Are Abusers Likely to be known to Law Enforcement Already? .... 68
Are Abusers Likely to be Drug and/or Alcohol Abusers? ................ 69
Are Abusers likely to be Mentally Ill or have Certain Personality
Traits? .................................................................................................... 70
Are Veterans/Military Personnel More likely to Abuse? .................. 71
Are Veterans/Military Personnel Who Abuse Different from Civilian
Abusers? .................................................................................................. 72
Are Adolescents with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
and/or Conduct Disorder More Likely to Become Abusers? ............ 74

Do Abusers Stick with One Victim? .................................................... 74
How Many Abusers are Likely to Reabuse? ...................................... 74
When are Abusers Likely to Reabuse? ............................................... 75
Which Abusers are Likely to Reabuse? .............................................. 76
Are IPV Stalkers Likely to Reabuse? .................................................. 77
Is Substance Abuse a Significant Risk Factor for Reabuse? ............ 79
Are there other Common Risk Factors Associated with Reabuse? . 79
What Factors are Not Associated with Reabuse? ............................... 80
2

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not
been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
Are Victims Accurate Predictors of Reabuse? ................................... 80
Which Abusers are Most Likely to Try to Kill their Intimate
Victims? ................................................................................................. 82
What are Other Lethality Risk Markers? .......................................... 83
Can Police Accurately Assess the Risk for Victim Lethality? ........... 83
What are the Risk Markers for Severe Injury?.................................. 85

V. Do Victim Characteristics Predict IPV Victimization? ................ 86
Are IPV Victims Also Perpetrators? ................................................... 86
Does Victim Substance and Alcohol Abuse Increase the Likelihood of
Intimate Partner Victimization? .......................................................... 87
Do Alcohol and Substance Abuse Impede Victim Ability to Protect
Themselves and Family? ....................................................................... 88
Are there Specific Risk Factors for Women Veterans/Military
Personnel? ............................................................................................... 89
Are there Specific Risk Factors for IPV for Pregnant Women?....... 89
What is the Link Between Social Supports and IPV
Victimization? ........................................................................................ 90

VI. Do Victims of IPV Seek Assistance and Services? ...................... 92
When Do IPV Victims Seek Assistance? ............................................. 94

VII. What Protective Factors and Coping Skills Mitigate the Adverse
Impact of IPV? ....................................................................................... 96

VIII. What Services Are Typically Available to Victims
of Domestic Violence? ............................................................................ 98
Are Intimate Partner Victim Services Reaching those in Need
of them? ................................................................................................ 100
What Services do Victims Typically Seek? ...................................... 102
Do Victims Seeking Shelter Differ from those Seeking Non-Shelter
Services? ............................................................................................... 103
Are the Needs of Women and their Children in Homeless Shelters
Different from those in Domestic Violence Shelters? ....................... 104
What are Common Barriers to Services? .......................................... 105
Do Services Sought Differ by Victim Race? ...................................... 105
Are Rural Intimate Partner Victims Receiving Domestic Violence
Services/Advocacy? ............................................................................ 106
What Role does Spirituality Play in Victim Services? ..................... 107

3

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not
been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
IX. Do Victim Services Work? ........................................................... 109
Are Victims Satisfied with the Services they Receive? ..................... 110
How do Victims Rate the Shelter Services? ...................................... 111
Have Programs Proven Effective in Responding to Reproductive
Coercion? .............................................................................................. 114
Are Battered Women Shelters Responding to the Heightened HIV
Infection Risk of Victims? ................................................................... 114
Do Services Reduce the Abuse of Pregnant Women and New
Mothers? ............................................................................................... 115
How can the Detrimental Effects of Child Exposure to Domestic
Violence be Mitigated? ........................................................................ 116
What Works for Victims Experiencing PTSD? ................................ 117

X. What Role Do Health Care Providers Play in Responding to
Intimate Partner Violence? ................................................................ 119
Do IPV Victims Utilize ERs? .............................................................. 120
Do Hospital ERs Successfully Identify IPV Victims Seeking
Emergency Medical Treatment? ........................................................ 121
Does Universal Medical Screening Help IPV Victims? .................... 121
How Should Medical Screening be Administered? .......................... 123

XI. What Victim Advocates and Service Providers Need to Know
about the Legal System?...................................................................... 124

A. What Do Victim Advocates and Service Providers Need to Know
About the Civil Legal System, Specifically Civil Orders of
Protection? ............................................................................................ 124
Are Arrested Perpetrators of IPV Different from Court-Restrained
Abusers against Whom Victims have Obtained Protective
Orders? ................................................................................................. 125
Which Victims Seek Civil Protective Orders? .................................. 126
When do Victims Seek Orders? .......................................................... 127
Why do Victims Seek Protective Orders? ......................................... 128
Why do Victims Not Return to Court for Final Orders or “Drop”
Orders? ................................................................................................. 129
Do Orders Prevent Further Victimization by the Court Restrained
Abusers? ................................................................................................ 130
Are Victims Satisfied with Civil Protection Orders? ....................... 131
Should Victims Pursue both Civil and Criminal Intervention against
their Abusers? ...................................................................................... 132
4

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not
been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
Which Abusers are More Likely to Violate Orders? ....................... 133
What Consistent Flaws have been Found in Protective Orders
Practice? ................................................................................................ 133

B. What Do Victim Advocates and Service Providers Need to Know
About the Criminal Legal System? .................................................... 134
Do Batterer Intervention Programs Prevent Reabuse ..................... 136
Does the Type or Length of Batterer Intervention Programs Make a
Difference? ........................................................................................... 137
Are Court-Referred Batterers Likely to Complete Batterer
Programs? ............................................................................................ 138
Do Those Who Complete Batterer Programs do Better Than Those
Who Fail? ............................................................................................. 139
Which Batterers are Likely to Fail to Attend Mandated Batterer
Intervention Treatment? .................................................................... 140
When are Noncompliant Abusers Likely to Drop Out of Batterer
Programs? ............................................................................................ 141
What Should the Court’s Response be if Court-referred Abusers are
Noncompliant with Programs? .......................................................... 141
Are Victims Satisfied with Batterer Intervention Program
Referrals? ............................................................................................. 142
Do Couples Counseling or Anger Management Treatment Programs
Prevent Reabuse? ................................................................................ 143
Does Alcohol and Drug Treatment Prevent Reabuse? ................... 144

C. What Do Victim Advocates and Service Providers Need to Know
About IPV Law Enforcement ............................................................. 145
Do Victims Call Police? ...................................................................... 145
At What Point Do Victims Report IPV? .......................................... 146
Which Victims are Likely to Report IPV? ....................................... 146
Does the Quality of the Law Enforcement Response Influence IPV
Reporting? ............................................................................................ 147
What Kinds of IPV are Reported to Law Enforcement and are
Prosecuted? .......................................................................................... 147
What is Law Enforcement’s Response to Stalking? ......................... 148
Do Arrest Rates Correspond to Actual Rates of IPV and Stalking
Based on Victim Surveys of Abuse? .................................................. 150
Is Arrest an Effective Criminal Justice Response to
Reported IPV? ..................................................................................... 150
5

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not
been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
What Should Law Enforcement’s Response be if the Suspect is Gone
When Officers Arrive? ....................................................................... 151
What Role Can Law Enforcement Play in Linking IPV Victims to
Services? ................................................................................................ 152
Are Specialized Law Enforcement Units Effective in Responding to
IPV? ...................................................................................................... 153
Are Victims Satisfied with Law Enforcement Response? ............... 152
Should Law Enforcement Agencies Participate in Coordinated
Community Responses? ...................................................................... 154
Does IPV Training Improve Law Enforcement Responses to
Victims? ............................................................................................... 155

D. What Do Victim Advocates and Service Providers Need to Know
About IPV Prosecution? ...................................................................... 156
Does IPV Prosecution Increase Victim Safety? ................................ 156
Do Victims Want their Intimate Abusers Prosecuted? .................... 158
Why do a Minority of Victims Oppose Prosecution? ....................... 159
Is Victim Fear Well Founded?............................................................159
Can Cases be Successfully Prosecuted without Victims? ............... 161
Can Prosecutors Increase Victim Cooperation?............................... 162
Are Most Victims Ultimately Satisfied with Prosecutions? ............. 163

E. What Do Victim Advocates and Service Providers Need to Know
About Judges/Sentencing of IPV? ...................................................... 164
Does Sentencing Deter Reabuse? ...................................................... 164
Should Judges Follow Victim Preferences when Sentencing
Abusers? ............................................................................................... 166
How Should Courts Proceed Against Abusers Who Fail to Show for
Court Hearings? .................................................................................. 167
What Accounts for Abuser Sentencing? ........................................... 167

XII. What is IPV Victim Advocacy? .................................................. 169
Should Advocates Encourage IPV Victims who Suffer Intimate Partner
Sex Assaults to Participate in SANE programs? .............................. 170
Do Police and Prosecution Advocates Help
Victims? ................................................................................................ 171

XIII. What Performance Measures Should Advocates Adopt to
Evaluate the Criminal Justice Response to IPV?...............................172
6

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not
been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
A. What Performance Measures Should Advocates Require of Law
Enforcement in Terms of Arresting Suspect Abusers? .................... 173
What percent of Arrests Should be for Female Perpetrators of Intimate
Partner Violence? ................................................................................ 173
For What Should Abusers be Arrested? ........................................... 173
What has Been Shown to Increase Arrest Rates? ............................ 174
B. What Performance Measures Should Advocates Require of
Prosecutors and Courts? ..................................................................... 175
Can Successful Prosecutions be Increased? ..................................... 175
Do Specialized Prosecution Units Work? .......................................... 176
What Characterizes Specialized Prosecution Units? ...................... 178
Do Specialized DV Courts Work? ...................................................... 178
C. Do IPV Laws Make a Difference? ................................................. 179

Appendix ............................................................................................... 179
1. References ......................................................................................... 179
2. Author Bios ....................................................................................... 252
7

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not
been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.
Practical Implications of Current Intimate Partner Violence Research
for Victim Advocates and Service Providers

Introduction: How to Use this Guide

In 2009, the National Institute of Justice published Andrew Klein’s Practical
Implications of Current Domestic Violence Research: For Law Enforcement, Prosecutors
and Judges. The purpose of that work was to describe to these criminal justice
practitioners what the research tells us about domestic violence, including its perpetrators
and victims, the impact of current criminal justice and court responses to it, and more
particularly, the implications of that research for the day to day, real world responses to
domestic violence by law enforcement officers, prosecutors and judges.

Practitioners found that guide helpful, and it was suggested that it be expanded
and enhanced to address the practical implications of current domestic violence research
for victim advocates and service providers. Reflecting the new focus of this work, in
addition to the National Institute of Justice, the guide is also sponsored by the Office of
Victims of Crime, the Office on Violence Against Women and the Family Violence
Prevention and Services Program.

There are some substantial differences between the earlier work and this guide,
although there is also much overlap. Readers will notice immediately that we have
dropped “domestic violence,” substituting “intimate partner violence (IPV).” We did so
first because in 2002 the term IPV became the preferred research terminology
recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The CDC
sought to distinguish between violence and abuse by current and former intimate partners
from other forms of violence and abuse within the family, including child, sibling, parent
and elder abuse [694]. We acknowledge that most advocates and service providers
understand that the term “domestic violence” makes this same distinction, while the term
“family violence” refers to all violence and abuse within the family.

Second, the earlier work was primarily addressed to criminal justice personnel
who are concerned with criminal domestic violence statutes which generally do not
differentiate between “intimate partner violence” and “family violence.” By using the
term “intimate partner violence,” we hope to clarify that this guide is dealing with
research restricted, as much as possible, to current and former intimate partner violence
and abuse as opposed to more general non-intimate partner intra-family abuse. However,
as the astute reader will note, occasionally we will still refer to “domestic violence”
research. When we do so, it is because we are citing a study that includes data on intimate
partner violence.

It is also important to note that the research we review exams IPV utilizing
varying definitions. For example, some IPV is incident-based and some is dominance
and coercive control-based. As a result, the findings in each study must be understood
through the lens of the particular definition of IPV employed. There are also often
differences between IPV as studied by researchers and the domestic violence that
8

This document is a research report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. This report has not
been published by the Department. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s)
and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.